ebielidtien
a
De
me TIMEHRI
[ADVERTISEMENT]
BEING THE
dournal of the Royal Agricultural and Commer-
cial Society of British Guiana,
EDITED BY
EVERARD F. 1M THURN, M.A., of Exeter College, Oxford.
I rn ge
Published Half-Yearly...
er ‘For theyear ... ...
For each Part aes
Ae [June & December. |
PRICE:
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Amongst the Papers in preparation for this Fournal are the
following :—
Tatoo-marks of the Indians of British
Guiana.
Notes on West Indian Stone-Implements
(continued.)
A List of Plants of the Kaieteur Savan-
nah,
A Bibliography of Guiana. —
“The T-eatment of Murder among ie
Aborigines,
Treatment of Immigrants of Various
Races.
The Shell-motnds of Guiana.
Notes on the Palms of Guiana,
Historical Memoranda on the Boundary
of Berbice,
Balata-collecting.
a,
f
ae a SE We ea Sears
PRINTED AT THE
Bondon eee. BE. Stanford, ce Cross, s. W.
‘ ARGOSY”’
Essequibo, Betbice and Demerara undef
the Dutch (continued.)
River Flora.
Comparative Vocabulaty of Indian Lan-
guages.
Water-Supply for Estates and Town.
Rum-making.
Coffee Cultivation,
A Hand-list of Plants reported from Bri-
tish Guiana.
Yellow Fever.
Bush-notes of a Huntsman,
Rock Sculptures.
The Representation of the Colony at Ex.
hibitions.
Indian Star-Gazers.
A j ‘And es other Agricultural Papers.
PRESS, DEMERARA.
Brn comin ~~ PO
TIMEHRI
asHE SOURNAG
{te Rove Aoviutor ik {onmergal
Society
OF
BRITISH GUIANA.
Edited) by (i oii . E. F. 1M THuRN, M.A
AAG
Vel, ii. 1868.
Demerara: J. THOMSON. 1883.
London Agent: E. STANFORD, Charing Cross, S.W.
io
PRINTED AT THE ‘‘ARGOSY” OFFICE, DEMERARA.
Contents of Volume 2.
Our Muddy Shores, by ALEXANDER WINTER .., is
India-Rubber and Gutta-Percha Trees of British Ghiank:
by G. S. Jenman, F.L.S. i
Essequibo, Berbice and Demerara adie the Dutch, By
the Editor
The Lime Industry in Domne by a A ee
Nicuotts, M.D.
Model Settlers, by G. 5S. lexan, F.L. S. 06
By the Cuyooni to the Orinoco in 1857, from the diary
of W. H. Campsetz, LL.D.
Between the Pomeroon and the Orinoco, by the Editor
Health in the Colony, by J. E. Tiwnz, M.A.
A Visit to the Oil and Fibre Works at Pl. “F ottinnde;? z
by the Hon. B. Howe xt Jones
Notes on West Indian Stone Implements, ilneaared iy
the Editor (No. 2) ie
The River Berbice and its Rributares iy Aes
WINTER... ap Hc
Our Colonial Currency, Pee E Tee
A Chapter in the Life-history of a Plant, by G. S.
Jenman, F.L.S..
Lamaha Water ina a Process for Patifying it, oy E. E
H. Francis, F.C.S.
Essequibo, Berbice and Demerara dues thet Darch
Part ‘2, by the Editor ... ae ie ane aes
12
399
327
Vi.
Occastonat NotEs.—
Etymology of the word ‘ grail stick’ ae 159, 356
Couvade ... <0 bp 159, 355
Ocean-currents on the eae of Ghia Seren i 81e:
Jonah-myths 400 AGs s “0 sear ee
Analysis of a year’s work on a Sugarovtate ase LOD)
New Plants from British Guiana... ae 166, 361
An Accawoi Peaiman ... sare ae Ber bs aye
Local Medicinal Barks ... ee on SS)
“ Fascination” by Snakes A oe Bcc.
The Barbarian View of Guiana ... ust sass 20
New Local Literature... Redite 250)
Dutch Guiana at the rasierdee ‘Exhibition sock FOZ
The Representation of the Colony at Exhibitions 362
rratae pee se ae Bes aa eh Peon
William Hunter Campbell, L.L.D. In Memoriam ... 366
Report of Meetings of Society from July to December
ese | Aa sae ae sis ae aS Pe he 277
Papers on—
A Wasted Water-Power, by Luke M. Hitt... =. 375
Sugar-Cane Mills, by the Hon. W. RusszLtt ... 381
fe », by THomas SHIELDS ... PP 2) 30)
a
ee
INDEX
TO VOLUME 2
OF
TIMEHRI,
B.
PAGE,
Balata—see under ECONOMIC PropUCTSs.
Barbarian View of Guiana, the BSc ne ae 358
Baths, Public.. we 242
Berbice River :—see also nae Shem AND eeeew iene
a Alexander Winter on ade sie 265) 304
“ Colony Estates” ... tas whe 271
Fort St Andrew’s ... A aes 267
» Canje F ee tee 267-8
enone oun caters sais tae 268
», Nassau baa et .. 269, 283-4
New Amsterdam ... ve Be 268-9
Old town, the i di sida 283
Plantations
Albion ... sale bo 276
Bellevue | Bac dos 270
Bestendigheid ae ace 274,
Blairmont a, ale 270
Bourderoi sei gat 283
Dageraad 380 noe Aig Bae
Dankbarheid wis anc, fig. PUIG:
Den Arend so aot 201
De Velde cae oan | ESB Brey
Dornboom ae aa 290
Enfield ©... 068 poe 276
Friends ... ae noo, BIS, BIO!
is Friendship tite 50 288
Highbury ce v++ 270, 272-3
Hoorn ... 500 279
Karel and Williams’ Hoop oa 292
Lochaber i cor 273
Mara baa Gis 500 276
Ma Retraite oot aes 276
Mesopotamia 909 noc 280
lle INDEX.
B.—Continued.
Berbice River :—Alexander Winter on (Continued.) 7
Plantations (Continued.)
New Dageraad ue a6 279
Peerboom b00 202
Providence 270
Sandvoort 271
Smythfield 268, 276
St. Jan ve 271, 273
Blair, Dr., Journey to Venezuelan Gold-fields ... 103-58
Boundary between British and Venezuelan Guiana 212, 213
Bovianders ... 208
Cc.
Cacao—see undery ECONOMIC PRODUCTS.
Campbell, W. H.—see under ConTRIBUTORS.
5 In Memoriam 366
Cassareep, Indian method of using ... AS 122
Cattle-farming—see under ECONOMIC PRODUCTS.
Chaperall—see under FLora.
Chickora (a gold mining implement) ee 260 139-40
Chinese Settlement on Camooni Creek 98-102
Cholera 240
Cocoa-nuts—see under Deon Onie PRO WETS.
CONTRIBUTORS ;—
Campbell, W. H.
‘¢ By Cuyooni to Orinoco in 1857”... 103-58
Francis, E. E. H.
“ Lamaha Water and a Process for purifying it”... 315-26:
Hill, Luke M.
“ A Wasted Water-power” 375
im Thurn, E. F.
“Between the Pomeroon and Orinoco” 211-39
‘“‘Essequibo, Berbice and Demerara under the
Diwiweln —~ o00 00 33-80, 327-47
“Notes on West Indian Stone Tinslomsite? (No.2.) 252-64
“ Occasional Notes” Bee od 161-67, 348-70
Jenman, G. S.
“ India-Rubber and Gutta-Percha trees of British
Guiana” bee 12-32
“ Colonial India- Rubbers 00 197, 200, 381
“Model Settlers” 98-102
‘Chapter in the Life ices, of a Plant” 300-14.
Jones, B. Howell
‘Oil and Fibre Works at Mahaicony” ave 244~51
VOL Il.
C.—Continued,
ConTRIBUTORS.—(Continued.)
King, Mrs. Hampden
‘‘ Etymology of ‘ Grail Stick’” ie
Kingston, R. L.
“Couvade” ... vee
* Etymology of ‘ Grail Stick’ # no
Mann, J. H.
“‘ Sugar-cane Mills”
McClintock, W. C. H. F.
“ An Acawoi Peaiman”
Nicholls, H. A. Alford
‘“‘ Lime Industry in Dominica”
Russell, William
Analysis of a year’s work on a Sugar Estate
“‘ Sugar-cane Mills”
Shields, Thomas
“ Sugar-cane Mills”
Minne). E.
“Health in the Colony”...
“Our Colonial Currency”
Winter, Alexander
“ Our Muddy Shores”
“The River Berbice and its ii sinnerses!
“* Couvade”
“ Ocean Currents”
Couvade—see under FOLK-LORE.
Crown Lands, robbery of oe
49 Indian privileges in relation to
‘ regulations, suggested
Currency, Colonial
Demonetization of Mexican finer
Money, of account
A of legal currency
An of colloquial parlance
Bitt
Gil
Joey
Stampee
99 of paper ... 56
Currents, Ocean, from Amazon teed Guiana ..
5 D-.
Drift-mud on Coast of Guiana an ont
, 184, 381-4,
PAGE.
159
355
356
170-90
348
81-97
164
386-9
241-43
I-II
265-304
iv, INDEX.
Ke
PAGE,
Economic Propucts.
Barks, Medicinal used by Taine ae on nt 948-84
Arara “ ’ 353
Assara=arara.
Barawacashie ... 352
Biberine 352
Bouiari ; 351
Cedar, white ... 354.
Ewong-eke 353
Ek-ek 351
Hiawa 50 a6 Bee 352
Kiara-pepo ... BAe so 352
Koberee 354
Komara 354
Koraballi 352
Kuruballi 353
Mora, black 352
Powesema 351
Sipiri 352
Yari-yari 353
Cacao.
Beetles, injuring 384
Estates, abandoned 203
Land, suitable for 2390
Cattle-farming, in Berbice 302
in Venezuela . eon 149-50
Ghesuenut fibre and oil, ‘iareell. “Manufacture of, 199, 208, 244-51
AN ss machinery for aC 245-48
5 », labour for 250
Cocoa-nuts :
Copra 246
Disease of 240, 259
Effects of good auilethen | on 244
Fibre 248-9
Oil 246-7
Price of 249
Refuse, for garden SayeeeTe 249
Coffee, land suitable for 239
Fish, salting oc 237
Gold, in British Crtene 239
» from Surinam o9C 207
» Tupuquen, diggings ats “10 ue 139-42
VOL. II. Vv.
E.—Continued.
PAGE.
Economic Propucts—(Continued.)
India-rubbers
Balata ... ie du as ws. 30-2, 238
Coomaka-ballirubber _... cup 24-30, 197, 200
‘Hatie-balli rubber 200 oie 86 24
Hatie rubber, see Hevea.
Hevea Spruceana 500 12~24, 197-200
Queena sO Ss es
Touckpong rubber =Coomakaballi.
Iron-ore in Venezuela os ose one 153
Lime-culture. a a0 50 ote 81
Atwood, of Dominica, on te oo 82
Concentration of juice ... ae oc go
Crop, annual ... ae Be out 84
Crushing for juice sac nee soe 88
Expenses ae G00 as one 96
Flowering season ale au late 84
Fuel for a 656 00 92
Geographical Fecaiaeean a plant ... ss 81
Growth, rapid, of och ane noc 86
Harvesting ... $0 pac 87
Imray, Dr., cultivation of Hoe Sus 83
iningdneteon of plant into West Indies aes 82
Mills for Ae ane ca 890
Montserrat, cultivation at a0 ay 83
Nurseries for plants eee one 25 85
Oil, essential . 006 300 94
Deine! habitat of plant 505 ee 81
Planting ue ee ave 23e 85
Price of lime juice ond 500 “Ao 86
Returns from ... 200 ono cee 95
Shipping juice 530 ot bee 90
Soil for aes ac S00 sai 85
Sturge, Messrs 506 aa 83
Potato culture in British Guiana ci eo 182
Rice, at Cammooni Creek ... 009 100
Sugar, analysis of a year’s work on a soyer -estate ... 163
Sugar-cane mills 169, 170, 181, 183-4, 189, 190, 200, 381-4, 386-92
Timber.
Bullet-tree ... a 500 ane 267
Cedar,red ... ote Boa. | Ly ihe
Locust (Hymenea dan) ete Ih ana ee 123
o
V1. INDEX.
E.—Continued.
Economic Propucts—(Continued.)
Timber-trade Sie
Tobacco, cult. in Venezuela ...
Emancipation, effects of ...
Erata soe 200 509
Fe
“Fascination” by Snakes... a0 “00 508
Fauna.
Abouen-neh=Ava avarauna.
Ara ararauna ans aa oad
Kamoko=Palamedia Ey enea
Macaws ie oa0 ie 600
Manatee
Maracot=(Pacu se 2)
" Mosquitoes
Pacu sp? 000 boc 300
Palamedia cornuta
Farmers, small
‘‘ Floating Shops”
FLORA.
Acrostichum magnum. Ny. Sp. Baker
Anthurium (Sp?) ove dae
Eta palm=Mauritia flexuosa.
Aspidium macrophyllum, Sw...
distribution in West Indies
in British Guiana
habitat (on dry soil)
aquatic form (viviparous)... aie
Avicenia nitida
Bactris leptocarpa, Trail
FP sp. akin to leptocarpa ... ae
Balata=Mimusops balata. See ECONOMIC PRopuUCTS
Bambusa sp- (‘‘ Indian bamboo”)
Booba=Jviartea exorrhiza.
Brownea racemosa.. ; B00 as
Carata palm= Wenge aD
Chapperal—Curatella americana.
Chocolate, Wild=Pachira aquatica.
Cokerite=Maximiliana regia.
““Coomaka balli” (—?) aoe
Courida=Avicenia nitida,
Curatella americana A600 AAD AOD
235
235
110, 280
235
214, 235
235
298
238
361
218
309-14
309
309
309
310
J) 214
220
114, 232
111, 233
114, 23229
24, 30
146
VOL, II,
oo
Vil.
F.— Continued.
Francis, E, E. H. (See under Contarsurors.).
b2
; PAGE.
FLora—(Continued.) ’
Euterpe edulis 000 B00 a0 214, 223, 231
Hatie—Hevea Spruceana.
Hatie-balli (—?) ... sae 24,
Hevea Spruceana 12, 24
Hymenocallis guianensis 222
Gongora sp? 234.
Gustavia sp? 900 eae son 233
Triartea exorrhiza ... bo 232
Manicaria saccifera . 214, 231-2
Manicole=Euterpe edulis.
Mangrove—khizophora.
Mauritia aculeata. 00 145
Mauritia flexuosa, uses of 112
io on dry savannah 46 134.
* on wet savannah 219
Maximiliana regia dab es 231
Mimusops balata ... aed, 236, 267
Mitostemma Fenmanii Nov Sp. ET GEN. | Masters 167
Mora excelsa 215
Oncidium iridifolium 234
a Lanceanum 300 Ws 233
Orchids wus HAC eae 233-4
Pachira aquatica ... boo 231
Palms, see Bactris, Euterpe, ip Hens Vivian Mau-
ritia, Maximiliana a 267
Passiflora deficiens Nov. Sp., Masters 167
Polygonum sp? 207
Pontederia cordata no 207
“‘ Queena” —Coomacka balli.
Rhizophora mangal, effects of, on water ... 166, 214
Sipanea (near acinifolia 7) 218
Sobralia sp. sinc oad nee 232
Spathelia sp. 200 a 500 231
Stanhopea grandiflora eee 234
“ Touckpong” = Coomacka ial
Troolie-palm = Manicaria saccifera.
Yarooa=Bactris (near leptocarpa, Trail).
FoLk Lore.
Couvade 00 co EIS, BES
Jonah-myths 161
Fortitude, Pl: Cocoa-nut works at ke 244,
Vill. INDEX.
Ge
‘ PAGE,
GEOGRAPHY.
Abaribana Lake Pane nas So0 290
Abary R. 200 wh 265, oe 270, 288
Amakooroo R._.. 000 213, 210, 218, 227-8, 237
Acarabisci R. Chou ane me He 124
Annabeesi R. (Barima) ag 500 sts 227
Aratoori R. (Orinoco) ea nog se 227
Aroan R. (Barima) on soe = 227
Arooka R. (Barima) er ae ‘tos, 217, 227
Atopani Set: See Coomacka.
Aunama R. (Barama) als ate RAO 124
Bamboo R. (Berbice) ee a ah 281
Bara-bara R. (Waini) ste a ie 223
Baracarabana R. (Berbice) ... ive hs 281
Barama R. (Waini) ae ong HG AIT), OW), BRO)
Barima R. +» 105, 213, 216, 224-0, 232, 236-7
Barimanni R. (Waini) 560 309 +0217, 223-5, 232
Bassana R. (Orinoco) Aa ag se 8 2279
Beesibesani R. (Waini) eee ane ae 225
Berbice R. 000 Kies O00 ee» 265-304
i bar at mouth... ee on 266
Ns drainage of 206 otc Doc 265
_ “‘ floating islands” of weeds ... she 267
An rae Pattee. ase vee 266
rise of .. a0 360 on 265
Biara R. (Waini) . 560 ay e223 2a
Brandwaght (Berbice) 400 200 aie 278
Broadwater Lake (Berbice) ... eas 5 267
Canje R. (Berbice) ate ee 265-7
Canje-boven district (eerncoin ove ae 267
Caratal Hills 900 00 560 ce 140
Cariaqua R. (Berbice) wes a see 205
Coomacka Downs (Berbice) ... soe 205
Coomacka Set(=Atopani of Sfitreisvoncnltes Barima)... 104
Cooshi R. (Barima) 600 ae 200 227
Corentyn R. ae S00 Ao <oF 205
Corie R. (Barama) 580 700 oh II4
Coroomoo R. (Cuyooni) aby ges jms 1 20) 037,
Coreia R. (Pomeroon) 300 n0¢ se 220, 229
Crab Island (Berbice) anh ae coy Adley) iris
Cuyooni R. 500 500 900 kieta 127-37
Cuyueeni R. (Amakooroo) ... be wa 227
Dowocaima Rapids (Barama) ue es 115
VOL, iI, 1X,
G.—Continued.
: PAGE,
GEOGRAPHY.—(Continued)
Ebeni R. (Berbice) an ae ge 200
Eborabo R, (Berbice) ie Sie ... 266, 294
Entagga R. (Barima) obo aa eo 225
Etooni R. (Berbice) Je us a. | 266, 203
Groote-marri-paam (Berbice) 200 bon Fy Br!
Hina R. See Waiwa.
Hitia Sav: (Berbice) sa aa ws 288, 285
Hobima R. (Waini) ane Mee ie 224
Icoorowa R. (Berbice) Bae ass .. 265-6, 278
Idure-wadde (Berbice) i Bb sat 2096
ITaBoos (canals between rivers) iM ...219-30, 279
formation of sie Dye aS 218-30
Itabroo Falls (Berbice) he aac BAC 207
Kaitooma R. (Barima) ve Ae, Sao CAG) C2]
Kamwatta R, (Waini) ae ah are 222
Kariakoo Sett : (Barama) ie Eyes a 114
Kenaima Cat : (Cuyooni) sin sie Ra 127
Kibbiribiry R. (Berbice) ° ... baa eae 293
Kimbia R. (Berbice) is ee ah 290
Klein-marri-paam (Berbice) ... a Be 275
Kokerite Mission (Pomeroon)... ae “ise 220
Lana District (Berbice) ae ee at 292
Las Tablas, Town (Orinoco) ... a ae 155
Mahokobunna B. (Barima) ... a Foe 227
Manacabouri (Berbice) wa Sh ee 288
Manawarin R. (Morooka) We seh «1. 220-1, 221
MANGROVE TRACT, the jy ai sists 215
Mapenna R. (Corentyn) bi anc se 265
Mappa Lake (Berbice) ao aod Bog 205
Marlissa Rapid (Berbice) fe Rea Baa 296
Massawindoie R.(Barama) ... boo a90 118
Mattara Mission (Berbice) ... ote aes 291
Mora TRACT, the ... 215
Morawhanna (Nat. CANAL eeween Waini and Bar
ma) .. 548 a» 104, 224-7, 226, 237
Morano R. (Waini) wee 224-6, 227, 220, 232
Moorigs (parts of soregmeley aa se 201
Morooka R. Koh 213, 215-7, 221-2, 230, 230
Orinoco and Pomeroon, peaveen Aap ee 20230)
Paripie R. (Berbice) ses a06 sae 203
Parway R. (Berbice) Re bab 203
PATHS FROM CUYOONI INTO VENEZUELA, 109, 114, 118, 120-6, 129
Xe INDEX
G.—Continued.
PAGE,
GEOGRAPHY.—(Continued.)
Pomeroon R. 213-8, 235-6
Pomeroon and Orinoco, peewee 211, 239
Quara R. (Barima) 227
Quobanna Mission (Waini) 237
RIVER-SYSTEMS 216
Santa Rosa Mission (Moraoka . 221-2, 236
Saorina R. (Waini) 224,
SAVANNAHS.
dry 2 215, 286
» Origin of.... 287
wet wee 215, 219-21
» origin of ... 215
Seba-seba R. (Waini) 225
Sowareeko R. (Waini) 224
Tracts, MANGROVE AND MoRA 215
Tirumba Cat : (Cuyooni) 132
Tupuquen Village... 137
Urawarara = Uruaraia of ini (Capaon) 129
Virogne R. (Berbice) a6 ..» 206, 278, 288, 290-1
Waanamoo R. (Barama) wale 114
Waiakaksroo R. (Amakooroo) 227
Waini R. 2 104-5, 225, one, 8, anes They wR, 235-7
1st Eide of if se 218
be odour of... 100
Waiwa R=Hina of maps ? (Baramia 113
Wakapoa R. (Pomeroon) 219-20
““ WATER-PATHS”. See itaboos.
Warramoori Mission (Morooka) 221, 236
Warrapoka R. (Waini) 108
Warraputt Sett : (Cuyooni) 126
Wikky R. (Berbice) 265, 203
Yacatta R. (Berbice) 279
Yaracoory R. (Berbice) 268
Yariki R. (Berbice) 205
Yuruari R. (Cuyooni) 133
Yuruan R. (Cuyooni) , 133
Gold, see under ECONOMIC Propucrs!
Grail stick, etymology of word 159, 350
Guiana, the Barbarian View of 358
H.
Hamilton, Col., his Venezuelan Estates Sih
137
VOE- cI.
H.— Continued.
Hatie, See under ECONOMIC PRODUCTS.
Hatie-balli
Hevea
History :—
Abary R.
Amazon R.
”)
”
”)
(Dutch Settlement on)
Amazons, tribe of..
Berbice: Dutch eelements on as
under Van Peere 1626
state of in sue 1645
population in 1645
slavery in ... 1645
under New Gen. West. ome Co. 1674
under a second Van Peere 1678
captured by French 1689
objects of cultivation about 1700
captured by French 1712
under Berbice Association 1720
state of in ... 1720
constitution ordered fon 1732
Court of Policy instituted 1733
civil and criminal courts ,, 1733
governor, first Bee GBS
state of in ooo LAS
‘slaves in con LARE
ts ee OO
slave revolt fs . 1765
captured by English . 1796
Berreo, Antonio de, Gov. of Trinidad
Berrie, Leonard, Expedition to Guiana in 1576
Borromeo (Pomeroon) ie Bee nd
Breda, treaty of, (1667)
Boundaries:
of Guiana in the widest sense
»”
as claimed by English in 16i1
” 1650
” 1665
fp 1660
as claimed by Dutch in 1666
1667
as claimed te eee in ae
of Essequibo...
of Berbice
poo po 900
PAGE,
59
43, 46
oe 41, 46
63-4, 68, 73, 75
66-8
INDEX.
PAGE.
H.—Continued,
History—(Continued.)
Boundaries—Continued.
of Surinam as granted to Lord Willoughby in 1663 _ 72
Amazon, the, as boundary ea «> = 43}, 45-0
Maranon (Amazon), as boundary 46
Orinoco, the, as boundary a ~ 43, 44
Byam, William, Governor of Surinam in 7667 p 75
Caroleigh, (English settlm. 1604) 65
Cayenne, settlements on ae 7, 59, 76-7
. Columbus, Christopher, discovery of @iiene 33, 43
Company, Dutch West Indian, 63, 68
Court of Policy instituted 337
Crab Island 356 as 333
Crynsens, Admiral, capture af ‘Surinam = (1667) ar. 75°60
Demerara :
Dutch Settlements on (1745) oe 79
recognized as colony (1765) pat 79
captured by English (1781) 326, 346
surrendered to French (1782) 326, 346
restored to Dutch (1783) 326, 346
union, partial, with Essequibo ( 1783) 345
» final ” (1783) 345
captured by English (1796) 346
Desse-cuba (= Essequibo) 74
Discovery of Guiana by Columbus, <apazied 33, 43
El Dorado, city of (= Manoa) 35-40
Enys, Renatus, account of Surinam in 1663 : 72
English, immigration into colonies in 1796 coc 346
Essequibo :
origin of name 300 es 58
Dutch Settlement nes: 60, oD, 68, 73-6, 79
entrusted to Dutch W.1I. C. (1621) “hp 329
relinquished to Commission of eight (1657) ... 329
nf to State of Zealand (1665) 200 330
5 to New Dutch W.I. Co. (1674) . 330
captured by English (1781) 600 see) 827) 340
surrendered to French (1782) aD eh aul
i to Dutch (1783) 29s) AISA BAT,
captured by English (1796) 347
union, partial, with Demerara (1783) 345
» final, ” (1789) oee 345
VOL. IL. XIll
H.—Continued,
PAGE.
History—(Continued.)
Everard, Lieut., in command of Pomeroon and Esse-
quibo (1667) 76
Explorers of Guiana :
Berrie, Leonard 49
Dutch 42, 46
English 42, 46
French dive 42, 46
Herera, Alonzo de, His ab “06 44
Keymis, Lawrence » 49, 51,55
Martinez, Juan, 37
Ojeda, Alonzo de 43
Ordaz, Diego de 37
Orellana, Francisco de 44-46
Pinzon, Vincente Janez ... 43
Pizzaro, Gonzalo 45
Bortusese ats a: ee
Raleigh, Sir Walter onc A 36, 46-52, 56
Spanish He 42, 46
Galbano- Bitenbentis: account & Beceieel Cae 333
Gondamar, Sp. Ambassador, complaints of raat
expeditions 67
Griffith, George, petition to King anent Anneven one 69
Gromweagle, Dutch Commander in Essequibo 1616... 60-63
Guiana, name, origin of 34.
Harcourt, Robert, royal grant of Guigay o. 1613 . 66
Harman, Sir John, sacked Cayenne 1667 76
Herera, Alonzo de, Expedition to Oronoco, 1533 44
Hyde, Laurence, royal grant of Guiana to, 1663, 72
Indians see (still under ee NATIVES of.
Keymis, Laurence ee + 49, 51, 55
Kykoverall (Portugese settlt. date Dutch settlt.
1616 fere) des ays 59-60
Land, nature of 52, 57
rivers of ... Be % we
Leigh, Chs. Settlt. on Wiaranvcies eon se Oe 6e
Lopez, Francisco de, account of wealth of Guiana... 36
Manoa, city of 35-40
Maranon (= Amazon R) “3 43, 46
Martinez, Juan, asserted visit to Manoa ... 37
Meriwinia (French Settlement 1625) ae 56
Middleburg, (Dutch Settlement) ua ieee 58
¢
XIV. INDEX.
H.— Continued.
PAGE
History—(Continued.)
Moddyford, Sir Th.; proposition for rooting the Dutch
out of the West Indies... 605 . 74
Name of Guiana, origin of 34
Natives of, early notices of:
Amazons 41, 46
“croissants of gold” So 39
habits - 48, 54, 63°
headless men ... 41
Manoa, inhabitants of, 35-40
paiwari feasts... oac 00 39
relation to early settlers, ... 300 53- a, 7273970:
treatment of, by early settlers alo ' 44, 46, 48, 49
Tribes—Arawack Ban doe 61-2, 78
Caribs 62, 68
(Macusis ?) 40
Ovenoqueponi .. one 39
Needham, Major, aitineks on Aramaek 1667 78
New Zealand (Dutch settlement) Bee S00 58, 74
North, Roger; adventure to Guiana 1620; Govnr. of
Amazon Co. 1626 66 66-8
Ojeda, Alonzo de, discovery ei Satine 20) 43
Ordaz, Diego de, founder of Santo Thomé 1531 37, 55
Orellana, Francisco de, discovery of Amazon 1540 .. 44, 40
Orinoco R. 44.
Paramaribo. See Surinam.
Peere, Jan Van, founder of Berbice 1627 .. 63
Pinzon, Vincente Janez, discovery of sarmnih of ia
zon R. 1499? 43
Pizzaro, Gonzalez, in search of Manoa 1 He 45
Pinckard, Dr. George ; 200 347
Pomeroon (Dutch Settlements OD) Bec 58, 64, 73, 76
Raleigh, Sir W. ... 600 36, 46-52, 56
Rowe, Sir Th., account of Sp see designs on Guiana
in 1611 65
Rumours, early, of Guiana:
Amazons 41, 40
Amoocoo, Lake ne a 40
El Dorado, city of Sn 200 98.8, 43, 48
empire of Guiana , Pao 36
gold, attraction to Guiana 34, 40
headless people ve 7a en
VOL, I, XV.
H.—Continued.
fi PAGE,
History—(Continued.)
Rumours, early, of Guiana.—Continued.
Manoa, city of 35-8, 43, 45
» site, supposed of 39-41
Peru, reported connection with Guana 37
treasure of Guiana 33-3
Santo Thomé (Sp. eeitlemeneyi 54-0
Settlements in Guiana :
Abary (Dutch) ase sia 59
Berbice (Dutch 1626) ... a 63, Gal 68, 73, 75
Caroleigh (Eng. 1604) us 65
Cayenne (Sp. 1568) (French 1613, 1612) been lees
» (Dutch) 20 59
Demerara (Dutch 1745) ... aie 79
Essequibo (Dutch) ite ee 60, Ba, 68, 73-6, 79
Kykoverall (Portuguese date ?) (Dutch fere 1616) 59-60
Meriwinia (Fr. 1625) a 56
Middleburgh (Dutch) 58
New Zealand (Dutch) 58, 74
Paramaribo, see Surinam.
Pomeroon R. on (Dutch 1580) 58, 64, 73, 76
Santo Thomé (Sp.) 55
Suramaco (Fr. 1626, 1639, 1642) 56
Surinam Eng. 1643?, 1650) =, FG Sy FAO
Wiapoca (Fr. 1607) (Eng. 1608) - 56, 65
Willoughbyland (Eng.) 73
Scott, Major John, expedn. against Dutch aaiones boo 74,76
Slaves, negro, introduction into Guiana ... 63
Sotelle, Gaspar de, founder of Cayenne ... 55
Struggles between various colonies 74-5
Suramacco (Fr. Settlts. at) 56
Surinam (Paramaribo) (Eng. Settlts. 2). Eh 73.75, 70
Timberan (Pomeroon ?) 74.
* Willoughby, Francis, Lord Berien 70-5
0 Henry, (Gensel 76, 77
William, Lord Ty She 77,78
Wiapoca (Fr. Settlt. & Eng. )... 56, 65
Willoughbyland (Eng. Settlts.) 73
Holmes, Sir Wiiliam, journey to Venezuelan agit fields 104
He
Immigration, early attempts at ap avy ae =: 273, 277
C2
XVI INDEX.
I.—Continued.
im Thurn, E. F. see under CONTRIBUTORS.
Industries, the small
India-rubber, see under Econ. Beoneors:
Iron 9 %
Jenman,'G./S, 5; CONTRIBUTORS.
Jonah-myths ...
Jones, B. Howell, see under CONTRIBUTORS.
Le
Labour supply:
Chinese Settlement on Cammooni Creek...
on Berbice
Lamaha water:
composition of
purification of
Leprosy, precautions against
Lime-culture, see under Econ. PRODUCTS.
Literature, local, new
Locust-tree, see under ECON. PReDuene.
Mie
Mangrove, see under FLORA.
Mann, J.H. ,, CONTRIBUTORS.
Mauritia 5 FLORA.
MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY:
Accounts Bi,
Donations received
Elections :
Associates—Bayne, J.
Brown, J. ...
Coronel, G. ...
Crail, W. W.
Cross, E. i
Cunha, C. A.
D’Andrade, A. A.
Davis, J. W....
Delafons, H. Y.
Duff, R.
Gallienne, J. W.
Gaskin, C. P.
Gill, F.
Greene, R, B,
Ear 161
168, 179, 188, 371-2, 380
170, 190, 200, 210, 373-4
re 372
374
206
188
374
380
188
188
188
168
380
168
371
206
VOL, U, RVI,
M,—Continued,
PAGE,
MEETINGS OF THE SoclETY—(Continued.)
Elections—Continued.
Associates—Continued.
Holtzman, J. ee oes 372
Gnesi. Bb 000 206
Tkoneay Ae) arr: a ae 386
MacIntyre, W. H. O00 oe0 168
Maclean, R.... as ae 188
Mclnroy, J. W. er 300 168
McLeod, M. Jun. dai $0 372
Menzies, N.... Be a 181
Morris) i: vas er 179
_Samborne, W. P. as Ags 196
Sealy, F.S.... Jes aes 374
Smithy CSeue be he 206
Wickham, J. R. is ans 374.
Wright, R. T. aes we 206
Members—Alexander, ]. O. ee ren 179
Andrews, J.... sce S00 386
Butts, R. B. O. te ss 206
Callum, D. ... ae agp 372
Clegg, R. M. wise a 380
Conrad lye: ete oa 190
Davis, W. ... bis a 188
Davson, C.S. ate sae 168
Dawson, J. M. oe0 206 168
Goldney, J. T. oc obo 372
Grant, W. A. ye as 206
Graal ae iss. 8s og 168
Griffith, W. C. E. ai ies 206
Grogin, T. ... tak aoe 386
Herriot, S. ... ea Ace 188
Jones, W. B... We Ss 188
MacGowan, D. H. ae AnD 168
Matthey, C.A. . ais oe 386
McKenzie, J. R. bor Ach 168
Pearson, J. G. ne Bad 372
FettSSell ue | eaeees ee ad 386
Shannon, M.... Ob aig 188
Sloman, E. ... one ou 371
Sehtiliy Wea sea le a 181
Stewart, A.C, ie nee 206
RVI. INDEX.
M.—Continued,
PAGE,
MEETINGS OF THE SociETY—(Continued.)
Elections—Continued,
Members—Continued,
Villiers, F. ... ae es 181
Williams, T. F. A. 206 500 181
Williams, R. H. Se ie 371
Williamson, M. ae uae opis
Election of office-bearers for 1884 900
Journal (Timehri)... A oe “188, 372) 377
Meetings held—January ith 336 so 168
February 8th 00 300 179
March 8th es sae 181
April 12th 300 ne 188
May 1oth one 200 196
June 14th 04 dco 206
July 12th 301 a0 371
August oth Hee La 372
Sept. 13th i A060 374
October 11th ify Has 380
Novr. 8th ae ue 386
Decr. 13th cin 000 302
Museum :
Curator, Appointment of, a 169, 180, 188
microscope, rules for ae ae «. 170, 179
report on, by Curator... te 199, 202, 207
Transactions :
Amsterdam Exhibition 60 500 168
Calcutta Exhibition ies 196, ai 371-2, 377-80, 302
cacao pests ... nee 384-5
canes, sugar, destroyed be crab- lees. w5 371, 373-4
Campbell, W H., death of ac 006 393
cocoa-nut fibre and oil, local 500 «» 199, 208
communications to Society, arrangements
as to, ae she one BoC 198
gold from Surinam ar te one 207
hour of Meeting ad 500 no 208
india-rubber, local 00 «+» 197, 200, 376-7, 380
Nepaul pepper Seed 200 Ab 4c 180
potato culture in B. Guiana , 182
sugar-cane mills, 169, 170, 181, 183, aM, “oma, 200, 381-4,
386-92
sugar-maize seeds a ae oe 180, 100
water-power, wasted “ch ase di 375
VOL. II.
M.—Continued.
Mimusops, see under FLORA.
Mission buildings, Jesuit, remains of in Venezuela
Mitostemma, see under FLoRA.
““ Model Settlers” (at Cammooni Creek)
Mosquitoes... 00 aan
Mud, drift, on coast of Guane te a
“ Muddy Ghee, our”... 300
Ne
New plants from Guiana ae
Nicholls, H. A. Alford, see under Conmemuncns!
0,
Orinoco and Pomeroon, district between a6
P.
Palms, see under FLora.
Passiflora, see under FLORA.
Plants, new, from Guiana :
Acrostichum magnum, N. SP., Baker
Mitostemma Fenmanii Nov. GEN. ET Sp. Masters
Passiflora deficiens, Sp. Nov. Masters
Pomeroon and Orinoco, district between
Potatoes, see under ECON. PRODUCTS.
Q.
Quarantine... S00 S10 206
“Queena”. see under Econ. PRODUCTS.
Re
RED-MEN :*
Accawoi Bap us nd0
Arawacks Sale ae
ie Spanish)... oie
burning savannah, habit of ... “A0
Caribs (True) aw
» (Island) ...
constitutions of ... ua te
couvade among
XIX.
PAGE.
147, 151
ope 98-102
ee 235
ey Rib ie)
bie 241
115, 298, 348
230, 290, 298
108, 221, 236
ea 134
236, 208
254; 255
es. 118, 120
Ste 159
* For early notices of Indians [A.D. 1500-1796] see under History,
INDEX
R.—Continued.
RED-MEN.—(Continued.)
dances
differences, abel, in names ae places
in paths used
Hisences of : buck-sickness
disposition of, 40 508
fish-poisons: dawahy & moraballi
food: cassava juice, mode of using
games: ball-play ...
honesty of 6
hunting, dangers of oot
i» method of catching manatees...
4 waiting for sunken game
ii fish-poisoning
Jonah-myths, among ;
manufactures, cassava-graters
medicines of, see under ECON. Brommens (tS)
names of birds :
Abouen-neh—Ava ararauna 008
Beyseroo Ortyx cristatus. L.
Kamoko Palamedia cornuta
Warracaba Psophia crepitans
Yacambi A
names of plants :
Coomacka—Eriodendron anfractuosum
Coomackaballi see wnder FLORA.
Kamwatta—Bambusa sp ?
Queena (Macusi) see under FLORA.
Touckpong (Carib) ie
Yaroowa=Sactris sp. ... oan
ornaments, personal p00 ane
paths, character of 200
deviousness of sie ase
peaiman, power over animals... “re
plants used by :
ZEta palm (Mauritia flexuosa) 000
Bamboo (sp ?) 80
Ducalli (gen?) as resin ...
Moraballi, as fish poison..
Troolie (Manicaria snccihene as ane
provision grounds of oe oe
PAGE.
113, 116, 122, 123, 127,
112
113
118
108
130
123
121
126 -
113
348
110
110
123
161
125
235
287
235
» 305
365
104,
118
114
115
122
120
348
112
Til
125
123
232
108
VOL. I.
XX.
R.— Continued.
RED-MEN—(Continued,)
quippo writing... ote eee
sleeping naked ... wee ees
superstition of ... one see
Warraus ae eee
Rhizophora, see under Rrora:
Rice, see under Hcon: PPODUCTS.
Rock-pictures 265 one eee
Se
Shell-banks, uses of ae Mae
Shell implements see under STONE IMPLEMENTS.
Snakes, fascination by ... ie S05
STONE IMPLEMENTS :
Balliceux, Island, Carib burial place on...
banner stones os onc wee
burial-place, Carib ca
collars of stone ... 500
elaborateness of W. I. “capllernenti= q06
hafting ... eee eee
gouge ... 505 soc
mills, see tables of ator
mortars 9) ;
ornamental and practical forms ove
practical forms, see ornamental.
shell implements ... ane 200
stone collars
“stone tables”
tables of stone, so-called
types of axes:
perforated ... 200 aoc
winged ;
wedges or hatchets ?
Sugar, see under Econ: Propucts.
Te
Tasso . :
Temperance in the Calady on oe
Timber see under Econ: Products.
Tinne,
J. E. see under CONTRIBUTORS.
PAGE.
124
121
117, 129
214, 222
135
9
356
254-5
o++ 255-9, 365
254-5
201-2
250, 262
262
255
257
254-5
261-2
252-4
252-4
262
262
262
136
242
XXil. INDEX.
T.—Continued.
Tobacco see under Econ: PRODUCTS.
Traders among Indians ...
ab 4 W.
Winter, A.--see under CONTRIBUTORS.
WN
ut BOE
Te f al rieultuval io oul
ocitty of Hi lish (via ae
ee es, ine
VoL. 1.] FUNE, 1883. [PART hy
Edited by . : .E. F. im THURN, MiAs
CONTENTS. | Ce
*
PAPERS.—Our Muddy Shores, by Alexander Winter ; oe
India-Rubber and Gutta-Percha Trees of British Gutanie ite ;
G.S. Jenman, F.L.S., Government Botanist; Lsseguzbo, Berbice ay
and Demerara under the Dutch, by the Editor ; The Lime Indus
try in Dominica, by H. Alford Nichols, M.D.; Model Settlers, a Le
Lesson in the Smaller Industries, by G. Ss. Jenman ; By the -<
% _Cuyoont to the Orinoco in 1857) compiled from the diary of Ww 3
: a8 Campbell, L.L.D. ar
) OCCASIONAL NoTes.—Etymology of the word ‘ Grail-stee s
qe Couvade ; ‘Fonah-myths’; Ocean currents on the shores of Gut-
ana; New Plants from British Guiana.
_ Report OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS, from January to June, 1883;
including notes by James H. Mann, and the Honourable W. Rus-
lon Cane Mills, and by G.S, Jenman on Native India-Rubbers ;
also'a Report on the Museum, by the Curator.
eactaueetsesnacecnencesecuceeceessunannnenarseetrsnepansssscnwsnwnnnssusohedusercey snesnesapaatunsensanncnseneuenssnseenesnansnsartoncnansnsanarasssesianhasrasnanASSOAOSBERNGIARDSDIESSEAGSBE ODN 08
Demerara: J. THOMSON, Publisher.
ndon Agent : E, STANFORD, Charing Cross, S,W,
Our Muddy Shores.
By Alexander Winter.
“ The Civil Law gives the owner of land a right to that increase
which arises from -alluvion, which is defined, an insensible increment,
brought by the water.”—CowELL. (fohnson’s Dictionary.)
MIRITISH Guiana is composed of two districts,
geologically very different. One portion, by
far the larger in size though of lesser im-
portance, is the upper district, commonly called the
“interior of the country’’. It is of considerable elevation—
being well raised above the sea-level, and of a geological
formation quite distinct from the coast region. This
upper district commences at the sandhills, and stretches
away back to the mountains of the interior. The other
portion, from the line of sandhills to the sea, is the
Tichest part of the colony, and is the only part that is
cultivated, and inhabited by Europeans.
The sandhills, according to SCHOMBURGK, are ‘‘proba-
bly the boundary line of the gradual receding sea of a
former era.’ They extend, as stated by BARRINGTON
BROWN, from the Hitia savannah on the Berbice river,
eastward to the Orealla on the Corentyn, and westward
A
2 TIMEHRI.
to the Madewine on the Demerara River, and in Esse-
quibo along the coast from Aurora to the Pomeroon.
The tract on the sea-side of the line of sandhills is
nearly a dead flat, most of it below the level of the
sea at spring tides: it is of great depth, some two hun-
dred feet ; and rests on abase of granite. It is composed
of particles of sand and clay, with decayed vegetable
matter, and is of extreme and almost inexhaustible ferti- _
lity; the only valuable ingredient in which it is defi-
cient is lime, of which not a trace is to be found in the
whole country, either in the upper or lower districts.
This coast district is entirely alluvial, and its limits are
accurately defined in BARRINGTON BROWN’S Geological
Map of British Guiana. It is entirely composed of a
sediment deposited by the sea, and is of recent formation:
recent, that is in the geological acceptation of the term,
though doubtless, the process of deposition has been
going on for many centuries.
It has hitherto been generally supposed that the parti-
cles composing this sediment were derived from the dis-
integration of the rocks of the interior, and of soil and
_ vegetable débris brought down by our rivers. But this
theory is now given up as incorrect.
In the first place our rivers are remarkably free
from sediment in their upper reaches. Their waters,
especially those of the tributaries, are discolored
by an infusion of vegetable matter; but if taken
up in a glass, they appear perfectly clear. It is
only in the sea-reaches that the rivers are muddy.
If it were from sediment brought down by our rivers
that the alluvial deposit was formed, we should find
signs of it at the upper ends of the islands which are so
Our MupDDvy SHORES. 3
numerous in the estuaries of our large rivers ; but such
is not the case. At the upper ends of all the islands
both in Corentyn and Essequibo, the water is deep, and
there is no projecting spit or sand bank, such as is in-
variably present at the lower or sea end of the island.
This is very noticeable in going from Georgetown to
Suddie. The steamers in rounding the upper ends of
Leguan, Wakenaam, and Tiger Islands, pass very close
inshore, while they have to give a wide berth to the
lowerend of Hog Island, to avoid the banks and mud-
flats there, which are carefully buoyed off. Of this we
can judge from our own observation ; and it is confirmed
by men of science. BROWN writes :—
“The water in the estuaries of the large rivers for some distance up
from their mouths, and the sea water along the coasts oceanwards, for
over twelve miles, is of a yellowish-gray muddy colour, from the
enormous amount of fine earthy sediment in suspension. The water
of the Rivers themselves, even when in flood, is never so highly charged
with solid matter, so that this sediment must be stirred up by the
currents and waves passing over the muddy shallows of the coast, and
carried by the tide into the Rivers’ mouths, as well as seaward.”
It is now generally admitted that we are indebted, not
to our own rivers, but to the Amazon for the alluvial de-
posit forming the country in which we live and have our
sugar estates! And this seems probable when we con-
sider the enormous quantity of soil in suspension that
must be carried to the Atlantic by a river 100 miles wide
at its mouth, and of unknown depth, fed by such tribu-
taries as the Madeira, Topayos, Xingu and Rio Negro,
all themselves immense rivers, and flowing through the
richest tropical valley in the world.
The current of the Atlantic, from the point where this
great store of wealth is poured into the ocean, sets di-
A 2
4 TIMEHRI.
rectly toward our own shores. Of this we have, curiously
enough, direct proof. There was picked.up on the sand
beach in Corentyn, a sealed bottle containing the fol-
lowing written memorandum :—
N. G. Barque Johann Heinderick of Altona. To-ascertain the set of
the current, this was thrown overboard on the seventh of December
1973, Lat. O° 217 S,, Long. 302 547 W.
The person into whose hands this falls is kindly requested to publish
the date and place where and whenever it was picked up.
E. HACKE, Master.
H. JANSON, Passenger.
This was picked up at the Uxzon waterside, Corentyn,
on Tuesday 17th February 1874, Lat. 6° 5 N., Long.
57° 15 W. It had thus travelled fifteen hundred and
eighty one miles to the westward, and three hundred and
eighty six to the north, in seventy two days! With re-
gard to the set of the great equatorial current of the At-
lantic to the North-west, Sir CHARLES LYELL, the Geol-
ogist writes :—
“Among the greatest deposits now in progress, and of which the
distribution is chiefly determined by currents, we may class those
between the mouth of the Amazon and the Southern coast of North
America. Captain Sabine found that the Equatorial current was run-
ning with therapidity of four miles an hour where it crosses the stream
of the Amazon, which river preserves part of its original impulse, and
has its waters not wholly mingled with those of the ocean at the
distance of 300 miles from its mouth.
The sediment of the Amazon is thus constantly carried to the North-
west as far as the mouths of the Orinoco, and immense tracts of swamp
are formed along the coast of Guiana, with a long range of muddy
shoals bordering the marshes and becoming land.”
Assuming therefore that the great store of materials
for forming new alluvial deposits is brought from the
Amazon by sea, we may trace its course from the mouth.
Our MupbDy SHORES. is
of that river, to the shores of Guiana. It would sweep
the northern coast of South America, passing by Cayenne,
where the land is high and mountainous, and its first
great deposit would be in Dutch Guiana, where the land
is low and swampy, and here we find a vast tract of allu-
vial land of recent formation. Next to Surinam is
Berbice, which has been extensively enriched, judg-
ing from the distance of the sea coast from the line
of sandhills, some thirty to forty miles. Demerara then
gets its share, to the extent of about twenty-five miles.
On reaching the large estuary of the Essequibo it would
appear that the deposit had raised an archipelago of
islands, as well as numerous banks and shoals. Beyond
the mouth of the Essequibo, the supply of sediment
would seem to have been nearly exhausted ; for the
Arabian Coast has only a narrow strip of alluvial land of
two or three miles wide, between the sea and the line of
sand hills. Beyond this coast, from the Pomeroon to the
mouth of the Orinoco, again, is a very extensive tract of
newly formed alluvial land. As this tract trends ocean-
wards directly north, it has probably been supplied with
its sediment by the great Atlantic current, in its norther-
ly course.
It is apparently in this way that the rich coast lands of
Guiana have been formed. And the process is still in
operation, as is evident from the many new islands and
banks that have been formed within our own recollection,
and the extensive additions to the land of many of the
coast estates, in some cases to the extent of doubling the
depth of the original grant.
The coast line of Guiana must therefore be extending
sea-ward, and must continue to do so, as long as the
6 TIMEHRI.
equatorial current of the Atlantic continues to set in its
present direction.
But this extension is by no means at a uniform rate ;
on the contrary, the land at times, instead of “making”’,
is being washed away, to the serious danger of the
land already empoldered, rendering new dams and, in
some places, very costly sea defences, necessary to repel
the encroachment of the ocean. But on the whole the
great alluvial deposit must be increasing.
A very correct idea of the way this increase is effected
may be obtained by watching the progress of the banks
of drift-mud which, from time to time, are thrown up at
our watersides. The scene is a very peculiar one. The
spring tides bring in a vast amount of semi-fluid drift-
mud, which extends for many miles along the coast,
and for perhaps two or three miles seawards. This
mud is neither so liquid that a boat can sail in
it, nor so solid that a man can walk on it; any one
attempting to do the latter, would gradually sink down
to his neck. The only way to travel over it, is by
means of a “catamaran,”
which is a plank a foot wide,
and about ten or twelve feet long. It is used by the fish-
ermen, who by kneeling on it with one knee, and striking
out with the right arm and left leg (or vzce versa) propel
themselves along the slimy surface with considerable
speed, till they reach the edge of the water, where they
can commence their fishing. The prospect is dreary and
desolate in the extreme. There is not the slightest ele-
vation to break the monotony, and nothing more dismal
can be imagined, unless it be the frozen seas of the Arc-
tic regions, to which it bears some resemblance. The
only object that relieves the eye is the multitude of wad-
Our MuppDy SHORES. 7
ing birds which move lightly along the surface, picking
up the small fish left stranded in the mud by the reced-
ing tide. These birds are mostly the beautiful scarlet
ibis, and the white egret, and when they rise together
in flocks of forty or fifty the sight is very fine.
Where the drift-mud remains it becomes gradually
more and more solid, the seeds of the courida, (Avicenza
nitida), which are brought by the sea in great numbers,
begin to germinate and take root, and in a wonderfully
short time, a forest of young trees springs up. The mud
becomes consolidated and hard, and a permanent addition
is made to the land.
But this is by no means always the case; the banks
of drift-mud frequently disappear as suddenly as they
appeared. A single high spring tide will sweep them
entirely away, and perhaps a ‘‘ wash” may set in, instead.
This action of the tides, in sometimes bringing in these
deposits of mud, at other times sweeping them away and
encroaching upon the solid land, is a problem that has
yet to be solved. No fixed rules can be laid down re-
specting the formation of these deposits of alluvial soil.
There seems something capricious in the action of the
sea, both as to the permanence of the deposit and the
nature of the sediment deposited.
Sometimes instead of mud, it is sand that is brought
in ; and a fine hard sand beach is formed for many miles
along the coast, liable however to be washed away again
or coated with a layer of muddy clay. At other times
banks are thrown up composed entirely of small sea
shells*. These banks are often of considerable extent
* These shells, Mr. Brown tells us, are all of existing species.
8 TIMEHRI.
and are very valuable, but they are less permanent than
those either of mud or sand, for they frequently disappear
entirely after a short interval. Reefs of these shells are
to be found occasionally many miles inland, as on Plan-
tation /Zope on the East Coast of Demerara, and near
Goldstone Hall in Canje. These shells supply the only
calcareous substance in the colony and should be secured
at once on arrival and carried inland to a place of .
safety beyond the reach of the tides, and there stored for
future use ; instead of which they are generally left to be
brought in at leisure, so that probably before one-tenth
of the mass is secured a high spring tide comes and
sweeps the rest away! They form the very best covering
for our roads, and if more diligence were used in collect-
ing them, the supply would probably be found sufficient
to cover the public roads from one end of the colony to
the other; a boon only to be appreciated by those who
have had to burn earth for the purpose.
There is another curious substance occasionally
brought in by the spring tides, which is called by the
creoles, “coffee grounds” or “ sawdust,” and is supposed
to be decayed courida wood. But there is no smell of
decay about it, and when examined under the micros-
cope, it has the appearance of a regular formation, and
is probably some marine zoophyte.
The newly deposited drift-mud, though not of sufficient
consistence to admit of being dug, is yet of sufficient
consistence to be a hindrance to the passage of a stream of
water through it; and the drainage water from the kokers
and sluices of the coast estates, not being able to force
a channel through the mud to the sea, has either to spread
itself over the surface or, if that is too high for it, to
Our MuppDy SHORES. 9
creep along in shore before finding a passage to the sea.
This stream is increased in bulk as it passes down the coast
by the contributions from each of the several draining
trenches it passes, until it is powerful enough to force a
channel for itself, through the mud, to the sea.
It is in this way, doubtless, that many of our rivers
were originally formed, as we may see by the map. In
Surinam there are several large rivers whose course runs
parallel to the sea. Our larger rivers, such as the Co-
rentyn, the Berbice, the Demerara and the Essequibo,
the sources of which are in the high lands of the interior,
have sufficient volume and force to deliver their waters
directly into the sea through channels already established ;
but many of the smaller rivers, flowing through the
recently formed land near the coast, have evidently
had their course controlled, during the early stage
of their formation, by a deposit of alluvium between
them and the ocean. This is the case with. the Canje,
Abary, and Pomeroon, and in a very marked degree
with the Waini and Barima; and this is a further proof
that the alluvial deposit is brought in from the sea. A
glance at the two last named riverson the map will
convince any one.
But this alluvial deposit confers a still more important
benefit on the colony than increasing its surface. It is
to it, that we are indebted for our rivers being navigable,
and for the vast system of water-carriage we enjoy, such
as no other sugar colony, except Surinam, possesses. We
are apt to look with envy at the beautiful blue water and
sandy beaches of the West India Islands, and to wish
that the bars were removed from the mouths of our
rivers, so that our ports might be accessible to vessels of
B
10 TIMEHRI.
a larger size; but we are really better off as we are.
Our rivers, in their upper reaches, are mostly very
deep. The Canje, at eighty miles from its mouth, is
forty or forty-five feet deep. The Berbice has a uniform
depth of forty feet for a hundred miles, and at the junc-
tion of the Virognie, over fifty feet. Now, if it were not
for the bars at the mouth, the shallows in the sea-reaches,
and the moderate rise and fall of the tides, rarely exceed-
ing ten feet, our rivers would run dry at low water, and —
instead of a river navigable at all times of the tide, we
should only have deep muddy ravines, and the numerous
tributary creeks would at low water become mere dirty
ditches! This is the case with some rivers in other
countries ; the Avon for instance, runs nearly dry at low
tide, though at high water there is a depth of forty feet
up to the City of Bristol.
The effect of the banks of mud and sand brought
in by the tide, and which extend up the “sea-
reaches” of all the rivers of Guiana, is, that a large
portion of the fresh water is kept back and not allowed
to run to waste, and consequently the rivers are at all
times navigable. Hence our invaluable “ water-carriage.”
And this water-carriage is not only available for the
shipment of our produce when manufactured, but by
means of an extensive system of navigable canals, the
canes instead of being carried in carts, or on the backs of
animals, as in other countries, are brought to the mill in
punts, of which a single pair of mules can tow as many
as will contain canes enough for a hhd. of sugar !
It is this system of water-carriage that has rendered
possible the great extension of the sugar estates in this
colony ; for by simply connecting the navigable canals
Our Muppby SHORES. 1!
of several estates together, the planters have succeeded
in extending their cultivation on the gigantic scale that
is now common, so that crops are reckoned by thousands
instead of hundreds of tons! Thus is practically tested
the principle that “magnitude of operation is an element
of cheapness,” and the investment of large capital is
rendered profitable !
So that probably, of all the advantages possessed by
this colony, for which we are not half sufficiently
thankful, perhaps the most important of all is due to our
much abused “ Muddy Shores.”
The India-Rubber and Gutta-Perecha Trees of
British Guiana.*
By G. S. Fenman, F.L.S., Government Botanist of British Guiana.
3! of British Guiana, of my report to the Govern-
ment on Hevea Spruceana, inquiries were addressed to
me by persons interested in the matter for more specific
information than that report contained as to the yield
of this newly-found species of Hevea, the age at which
it might profitably be tapped for its juice, and the
nature of the land best suited for its growth under
cultivation. These were subjects which the time at my
disposal only permitted me to investigate partially on
my former journey, and on the receipt of the applica-
tions alluded to above, I deemed it important that,
the information should be obtained. As soon, therefore,
as I had the time to spare I obtained permission to
visit the interior to acquire it, as far as might be
possible.
The journey which was the subject-matter of my
former report on this species of Hevea was made on the
Essequibo and Mazaruni rivers, where in certain creeks,
and in scattered and often distant localities on the
banks of the main rivers, I found, by my own investiga-
tion, and by inquiry from the Indians and other residents,
* This paper is, in substance, reprinted from an official report by
Mr. JENMAN to His Excellency the Governor,
INDIA-RUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA TREES. 13
that the tree prevails in more orless abundance. This
being so, it appeared to me that, on this occasion, while
carrying out the primary objects of my mission, I might
make further acquaintance with its distribution ; and to
accomplish this in the best way, I deemed it would
be advisable not to return to the rivers with which I
was already acquainted, but to visit another part of the
country. It was necessary, however, to determine in
advance that the region I might decide to take was not
destitute of this tree; and finding, on inquiry, I could
accomplish my object on the Pomeroon River, which
flows through a region that was hitherto unknown to
me, and divided by a wide tract of country from the
rivers I have mentioned, I took this river for my opera-
tions. Mr. IM THURN, the Special Magistrate of the
district, was good enough to ascertain for my assistance
the situation of some of the best localities, to save me
any delay in seeking this information on my arrival;
and I may here acknowledge the material assistance |
derived from him in this and other ways. Indeed with-
out his aid I should have found my movements very
difficult at times, with the sparse population of the
region, and under the bad weather which I, unfortunately,
experienced.
To make the information in this report intelligible to
readers who may not have the former one to refer to, it
will be necessary as I proceed to touch occasionally on
matter which that contained ; and in this connection |
may mention that the Indian names of Hevea Spruceana
—taking the tribes who inhabit the belt of country in
which its distribution is principally embraced—are,
Arawack, Hatie:—Carzbis7, Poomui :—A ckawot, Sibisibi,
14 TIMEHRI.
of which the Avawack name is the most generally known
by the river residents; and that it is a tree very similar
in general appearance to Hevea brasiliensis which yields
the valuable Para rubber, and which is at present
the most important of the caoutchouc trees worked for
market. Both trees attain about the same dimensions,
and appear to grow under precisely the same conditions.
Indeed the description of the ground on the Amazon -
given by the collector CROSS, would apply literally to
the ground on the rivers of this colony occupied by Z.
Spruceana.
At this time of year (December), which is the height
of the winter rainy season, the land is partially flooded,
but the cessation of rain for a few days together makes a
great difference in the quantity of water diffused over it.
The water lies in shallow pools between the trees, or is
spread in sheets, when deeper, over wide spaces of
ground, and the surface-soil generally, especially where
this tree most abounds, is hardly more firm or dense than
mud. It will give an idea of its character when I say
that I wore a pair of high laced-up shooting boots, but
with the best care in moving about, and stepping mostly
on the more solid soil which is usually found in hillocks
around the butts of trees, or on the fallen bits of wood
which stretch between them, in spite of my care, I was
constantly sinking to their tops and over, so that
my socks were coated with mud. I am speaking, as
I have said, of the wet season of the year, but even
in the dry, the ground continues in a very moist con-
dition. The land is usually very densely shaded, and
in many places, probably in consequence, produces very
little undergrowth. It appears probable that ground
INDIA-RUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA TREES. 15
such as I have described is essential to the best de-
velopment of Hevea, as where these conditions most
uniformly prevail in the localities where it is found,
there most of the trees occur; and to this circumstance
I am disposed to ascribe its greater prevalence on the
creeks than on the main rivers. On the latter the
banks are rather higher than they are on the former,
and in many instances higher than the land within them.
The surface drainage of the country is in the first
instance into the creeks, and their banks are marked
with numerous and contiguous shallow channels, —a fea-
ture which the banks of the main rivers do not so
characteristically exhibit. This is more particularly
observable where the land is a little elevated above the
water level. All this region of the Pomeroon is very
low, and so prevalent is water on the land abut-
ting the creeks, that on one occasion on this journey
I travelled the greater part of the day before I found
a place to land, where the ground was sufficiently
dry to allow of my moving about. In using the word
creek, which is applied in this colony to all the tribu-
taries of a main river, some of which are very large,
and even navigable to large craft for many miles, I
speak of the smaller ones over which the trees on each
hand more or less meet, for on these I have found the
Hatie to be most abundant.
I have taken the occasion to describe rather fully
the character of the land, as it is important that persons
contemplating the cultivation of this species of Hevea
should be well informed as to the conditions which
prevail in its native haunts. Doubtless the tree might
be grown on dry land, or land dry comparatively to
16 TIMEHRI:
what I have described, but the conditions which accom-
pany its distribution in a state of nature are the most
reliable guide as to what it requires for its best develop-
ment in the shortest time; and these favour the presump-
tion that the growth would be slower on such land than
on land approximating in character to that on which
it is found naturally. In this, as in other similar
cases, the nearer the natural conditions are copied in
cultivation the greater the probability of attain-
ing the highest success. I have had unquestionable
evidence from observation of plants in the Botanic
Gardens of the sensitive nature of this tree under con-
ditions which diverge materially from those which I have
described, though I must acknowledge that the Hevea,
among trees inhabiting the same low alluvium, is not
singular in this particular.
As to the rate at which the Hatie grows, I can only
adduce the evidence gathered from residents of the
rivers and forests of the colony. A very intelligent
half-breed, who has been acquainted with this tree from
his youth, and for many years resided on the Essequibo
where it is particularly common, described it to be of
very quick growth, though it is always slender in pro-
portion to its height, and appears, comparatively, more
so by the absence which it uniformly exhibits of branches
while young, of which it makes very few at any period
of its life. He estimated, speaking of it, of course, in
its native habitats, that it attains a diameter of eight
or nine inches in five or six years. If this be correct, I
think it must be its extreme rate of development under
the most favourable conditions, for from what has been
experienced of the growth of Hevea brasiliensis, which,
INDIA-RUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA TREES. 17
as I have said, is a very similar plant, under cultivation
in the several countries where it has been tried, under,
however, I believe, generally, conditions which conform
but little to those which prevail in its native haunts, one
would infer it not to be so great. Yet I feel convinced
that had the Brazilian plants been tried on alluvial
ground, well sheltered from wind, with a very moist
atmosphere, and shaded by large trees, their growth
would have been much greater; and perhaps, so much
improved as, considering the relative very moderate
dimensions of the members of the genus, to be regarded
as rapid.
My experience on the Pomeroon of the ultimate de-
velopment of Hevea Spruceana agrees with the con-
clusions I arrived at regarding it on the Essequibo and
Mazaruni rivers. At its best it is not a large tree, and
rarely, I believe, exceeds twenty inches in diameter,
squaring for timber to about fourteen inches. The wood
is hard, but how durable I do not know, and it appears
to be of a character to be easily worked. The sap wood
is white, but large trees have a few inches of dark centre,
and its specific gravity is less than that of water. The
bark is rather thin and smooth, and it adheres tenaciously
to the wood. On trees a foot or more in diameter, it is
not a quarter of an inch thick. When found in high
forest, surrounded by others, the trees are quite straight
and erect, and attain a height of sixty feet or more, with
a few branches at the head. The upright trees are more
conveniently tapped than those which, standing on the
banks, lean out over the water; the position of which
is both awkward for cutting the bark and catching the
flowing juice.
Cc
18 TIMEHRI.
Imay here again call attention to the facilities which
this colony affords on all its rivers—and on that portion
of them too which is accessible without difficulty or much
expense, 2z.e., that below the falls—for the cultivation
of Hevea. To have the trees close together, as they
would be under a state of cultivation, for the convenience
of the collector, would be an important desideratum and
reduce the cost of collecting toa minimum. The waste
of time which the most systematic collectors experience
when the trees are growing in a natural state, scattered
as they are through the forest, must very considerably
enhance the cost of the labour. The cultivation might
be successfully pursued, not only where the trees are
found spontaneously but, as well, on land of a simi-
lar, or identical, character, where, through other cir-
cumstances, they are not naturally established. The
labour required would be very inconsiderable, and a few
hundred acres, treated with care and intelligence, would
prove in the course of years a source of considerable
profit to the proprietor. If planters in Ceylonand India
speak hopefully, as they do, of the eventual success of
Hevea cultivation in those countries, here, possessing all
the natural conditions, and the advantages derived from
an intimate acquaintance with these under the actual oc-
cupation of the trees, the success should be assured.
Wherever the tree is found, in the fruiting season—April
to June—seed may be procured in fair abundance. If
sown at once under the trees in nursery beds prepared
from the lighter soil and leaf-mould which the forest
affords in places, the plants would spring up rapidly, when
they might be carefully lifted, with their rootlets un-
broken, and planted at intervals under the other trees.
INDIA-RUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA TREES. 19
Where the latter are too close to admit the amount of
light required, they should be thinned out first ; and it
might be necessary to carry this on with care from time to
time with the increasing requirements, both for room and
light, of the planted trees. In some seasons and places it
would be unnecessary to collect and sow seeds, as na-
tural seedlings may be gathered under the trees. I think,
though my opportunities of observation have not been ex-
tensive on the matter, that the spontaneous production
of seedlings depends very much on the character of the
season when the seeds fall. If the rains have been very
heavy and the land is flooded, they lie in the water where
they drop and decay ; but if the rain has been light, or
if the water has subsided, they drop into the muddy sur-
face and germinate. This, too, is the only way I can ac-
count for their abundance in one place and almost en-
tire absence in another where the parent trees equally
prevail. A good many seeds are consumed by animals ;
for fish and birds, and probably such quadrupeds as
acourie and labba, are fond of them. The Hevea culti-
vator should be prepared to wait for his crop, but mean-
while any trees already on the ground might be utilised
and the produce sold. Seeing the increasing demand for
india-rubber, with the daily extension of its application,
and, particularly, the value of Hevea rubber, as compared
with other kinds, the result of the enterprise might be
looked forward to with the utmost confidence. Manu-
facturers will take all they can obtain, and were it only
more abundant in the market, and cheaper, many new uses
might be found for it. To give an idea of the importance
of the Brasilian trade in rubber, I may mention that
the exports from Para for the half-year ended June
C2
20 TIMEHRI.
last reached the value of $12,350,000. It illustrates
as well, the value of the industry which is within our
reach. The present market value of Para rubber is
4/6 per lb. The cultivation might be carried on in
conjunction with wood-cutting, plantain growing, or
any other immediately remunerative industry, which
would enable the cultivator to tide over the time till
the trees reached the age of production.
With regard to the question of the yield of Flevea
Spruceana, it seems to me from my late experience and
what I have been able to gather of the yield of A. dra-
siliensis, to be not less productive than that species. It
must be remembered that though the Para tree has gained
so great a commercial reputation and importance, its yield
of milk each day is exceedingly small. CROSS, the collec-
tor for the India Office, to whom I have already alluded,
says that fifteen of the cups used on the Amazon by the
collectors make an English Imperial pint. Rarely, how-
ever, a cut produces a cupfull, for he adds, ‘‘the quantity
of milk that flows from each cut varies, but if the tree
is large, and has not been much tapped, the majority of
cups will be more than half full, and occasionally a few
may be filled to the brim.”. And of trees which have
been wrought in previous years he says: “though
tapped in only two or three places, the quantity of milk
obtained is surprisingly little.’ Now I came to the
conclusion while experimenting on the Hatie that the
yield of good trees was hardly, if any, less than this.
The chief difficulty experienced is in the method and
means of collecting the juice; every drop is of value,
and it is important that there should be no waste either
by imperfection of contrivance for catching it as it issues
INDIA-RUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA TREES. 21
from the bark, or by the employment of unsuitable
vessels. The instant an incision is made, the milk begins
to run, and it naturally runs faster at first than it does
later, so that the collector must be prepared immediately
to apply, in a dexterous and effectual manner, his
apparatus for catching it. Again, if unsuitable vessels
are used as to character or size, waste will be experienced
by the diffusion of the milk over unnecessary surface, to
which it adheres in a very surprising manner. The little
loss, or reduction, which occurs in drying in the change
from milk to rubber, and the considerable bulk of the
latter resulting from the process, also strike one, though
it is probable that the quality of the milk, as well as its
quantity, depends upon the age of the tree. I was
under the impression that the nature of the vessels
employed in collecting the juice was a matter of little
consequence, and therefore I prepared none of a definite
character. I shall have occasion to speak further on of
another mode of collecting, but for this which I am
describing I am disposed to approve of the kind of cups
used on the Amazon, and also of the methods there
practised in the operation. These cups are round or flat
or slightly concave; the latter forms being most in use,
as they fit more closely when pressed against the tree.
They are made of burnt clay. Our Caribisi Indians,
who are potters for themselves and the various other
tribes, whould no doubt produce similar vessels at a very
cheap rate. They are stuck to the tree immediately
under the incision made in the bark by the collector’s
axe, with a small lump of well wrought clay. On the
Pomeroon where the trees grow, on the banks of the
creeks I found a very suitable clay, which I employed in
22 TIMEHRI.
my operations. It is necessary to smooth a little of it
over the edge of the cup, so as to direct the juice in.
For gashing the bark, I think a small axe with a short
handle, for use with one hand, would be the best adapted
instrument. This could be used with ease, and, it is of
very material importance in carrying out the work that
everything employed should be of a character to enable the
operator to manipulate it with dexterity. The Para
plan of making a single circle of incisions each day is
too, I consider, the best to pursue. Nothing is gained
by making numerous cuts close together; the flow of
juice should be allowed to take place by a few rather
than several exudations. If it occurs from too many
for a certain area, so little is obtained from each as to be
a mere drop or two ina vessel, which, diffused over the
large surface of the several receptacles, involves a
proportionally large loss by surface adhesion, in addition
to the time and labour taken up by the extra work. A
circle of incisions is made each day, extending from as
high as one can reach and working downwards, day by
day, to the base of tree. They should be made about six
or eight inches apart ; the incisions in the circles being
in quincunx order.
I recommend this system as the most economical for
collecting the fresh juice; but were the waste of the trees
not a vital consideration, a less conservative plan might
be practised. Much more is obtained in one operation
by cutting the tree down and tapping its bark the full
length of the trunk, than by the above method. The
yield I found in this way several times greater as the
immediate result. But to the permanent loss of the tree
as a rubber producing agent, though the timber might
INDIA-RUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA TREES. 23
perhaps be turned to account, must be added the
considerable waste which occurs in collecting the milk
by the number of vessels, or wide leaf surface, required to
catch it. I employed pieces of banana or trooly
(Manicaria saccifera) leaves, from which in part, the
men, as well, made the cups which were used when the
trees were tapped standing, laid under the prostrate
trunk, which I ringed at intervals of ten or twelve inches.
But, as I have said, it is a wasteful method, destroying
for a single crop a tree which might be cropped for
years; and much of the milk adheres to the leaf
surface. Yet I fear that when collectors turn their
attention to Hatie and other india-rubber trees, this
will be the system they will adopt, as it is already
established by practice in the colony wherever ba-
lata is gathered. From large trees thus destroyed a
pound of rubber might be obtained on an average
each, but I donot think more. The market value
of this, supposing it to be of the same quality as
Para rubber, and cleanly gathered, would be from three
shillings to four shillings and six pence; which, though
collectors may accept as a price that pays them for their
labour, seems an insignificant sum to destroy a tree for.
I doubt, however, considering the low relative price
which balata fetches, though the tree which produces it
is so much more prolific in milk, and so much larger
than the Hatie, whether the trees destroyed by balata
collectors return, for balata alone, so much as three and
six pence each on an average.
In my former report, guided by certain leading evidence,
] expressed a belief that other species of Hevenw might
be found in Guiana; but up to ‘now none has directly
24 TIMEHRI.
come under my personal notice. I have been informed,
however, that there grows on the Mazaruni, in that part
where the rise in the country first begins, above the first
falls, atree, which the Arawack Indians calls Hatie-balli,
from its resemblance to the Hatie, producing a similar
but smaller fruit. From what I can gather, and the
inference which may justly be drawn from the usual
acuteness of Indians as to the affinity of plants, I am
under the impression that this will prove to be a second
species of Hevea.
I have now to speak of another india-rubber tree which
I became acquainted with on this journey, the discovery
of which I regard as of great interest and probable
importance. While carrying out my investigations with
the Hatie, Mr. 1m THURN informed me that he had often
seen in the possession of Caribisi Indians balls of india-
rubber, which were exceedingly elastic. The Macusis
on the Rupununi savannah certainly collect it regularly
(they call it ‘““Queena’”’) and use it as balls (play).
This appeared to me to accord with the stories
brought home by the early travellers in the West
Indies, when the islands were occupied by Caribs,
and which also some existing travellers in this colony
have told me they had witnessed, of india-rubber balls
used in the festive games of the Indians when assembled
at paiwarie feasts, an instance of which I had never met
with in my own travels. I therefore determined at once
to visit the country where these Indians described their
residence to be, and gather what information they might
be able to give as to this rubber and the tree which pro-
duced it. I was not certain, however, that it was not the
production of the Hatie ; but I thought this improbable,
INDIA-RUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA TREES. 25
as I had met no Indians anywhere who possessed any
knowledge of the rubber produced by the Hatie. The
weather at this time was exceedingly wet and the
downfall of rain nearly continuous. On reaching the
waterside on Myrack Creek just before midnight, after a
tedious pull for several hours through the darkness, |
found the land flooded within the banks, and the sheets
of water bridged over by long logs. Most of these
sylvan bridges were covered six or eight inches deep
with water, and the footing was, to me, in the profound
darkness of the forest, treacherous and uncertain toa
degree. A walk of about four miles through deep forest
op an Indian trail brought us to the settlement, only to
discover that my guide had mistaken the creek and,
consequently, come to the wrong people. This was,
however, I found the neighbourhood of the tree I was in
search of, and the next day the collector of the gum, as
the river inhabitants term every substance which exudes
from a tree, was found at Comageguru, the next creek.
He had in his possession seven or eight balls of various
sizes, the larger ones weighing nearly a pound anda
half. 1 could not discover that he had had any definite
object in view in gathering them*. The larger balls
were, I should think, too big for employment in any
Indian games. His object may have been merely the
speculation that he might barter them on the river, or
down at the coast, as they do balata, considering it an
analogous substance. In the afternoon, when the rain
stopped, he took me to the same trees from which he had
* Small quantites of this rubber have for a long time, for the last
half dozen years to my knowledge, found a sale to the traders in the
D
26 2 DIvEHRI-
collected the rubber in the balls. They were situated
near a newly-made clearing intended for a provision
ground, about an hour and a half’s walk through the
forest from the landing place on the creek to which I had
come the night before. Passing over the cleared ground,
on which the bush had not yet been burned, we had to
dive again into the forest to reach the trees. I have
noticed a good deal of destruction in places of valuable
timber in the clearings made for provision grounds, and
this more particularly with the half-breeds who live on
the lower parts of the river and grow plantains, which
require a stiff soil upon which some of the better woods
grow. Only recently I came on a bit of forest which
had been underbushed for a provision field, the standing
timber of which consisted of greenheart and other valuable
trees. Whether any of this new rubber tree had
perished in this clearing, it did not occur to me at
the time to ascertain, but it is not improbable, as
those I examined stood on the skirt of the ground.
The trees were large individuals, four or five feet
in diameter of trunk, and one hundred and twenty or
more feet high. Their trunks were long, straight and
unbranched for sixty or seventy feet from the ground.
The lowest six feet of one had been scarred, and from
the scars the milk had run and was dried in tears or
strings several inches long on the bark. Most of the
congealed rubber was, however, contained in the fissures
made by the cutlass cuts, from which places it was rather
hard to extract it because of the tenacity with which it
held to the inner bark from which it had oozed. I gather-
district and on the Arabian coast. What becomes of it afterward [
don’t know.—Eb.
INDIA-RUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA TREES. 27
ed and made a ball, following the Indian plan of winding
it up like twine, of what was on this tree. They scar
the trunk and then leave it, the milk oozes from the
wounds, trickles down the bark, and coagulates and be-
comes dry in a few days. My guide said it took three
days to dry, but I should have supposed a shorter
time might accomplish the change, the little rivulets
are so very thin. That which was in the old cuts—
cuts probably a year or more old—had turned black,
but that in those recently made was nearly milk-white.
The Indian boys, who are perhaps accustomed to play
with the balls, as I noticed from several which they
brought me they never make them large, stripped the
dry strings very dexterously from the bark, taking good
care to extract the larger portion to which I have alluded
partly concealed in the incisions, and stretching it witha
good deal of tension, wound it up. These balls have
wonderful elasticity and bound with very little impulsion
several feet off the ground. The rubber too seems ex-
ceedingly tenacious and strong. This method of collect-
ing is that pursued in Ceara, the province of Brasil which
produces Manzhot Glazioviz. It is very economical of
time, for it saves the tedious operation of catching the
milk in a vessel as it issues from the wound, which is the
most troublesome of all the operations. The principal
objection to it is, that the rubber becomes soiled by the
dirt adhering to the bark, a little of which it retains, and
no doubt this would deteriorate its market value ; but
this cause of depreciation might be reduced to a mini-
mum by carefully brushing the surface down prior to
commencing collecting operations. Rubber which has
foreign matter incorporated with it, is classed under the
D2
28 TIMEHRI.
term negrohead in the market, and its value depends
on the measure of its freedom from dirt or other sub-
stance, having regard of course to the quality of the
rubber itself when clean.
The branches of the trees I saw were so high that the
character of the foliage could not be distinguished from
the ground, and, as there was no means of ascending
trunks so stout, I had to resort to the aid of a gun, and
with this shot some branchlets off. It was, I was sorry
to find, not the flowering season, but judging from the
foliage alone, the tree appears to be a species of Ficus
or Urostigma, but in the absence of flowers and fruit it
could only be identified conjecturally. The colony
abounds in different plants of the above genera, of which,
presumably, other species to this are also valuable.
Some of them are known to attain large dimensions.
The seeds are dispersed by birds and other animals, and
they germinate on other kinds of trees, principally palms,
among the leaves, from whence they throw a root to the
ground which again emits branches, and these with the
main root in course of time amalgamate and form the
base of the tree. Itis curious to notice how these root-
branches fuse together and form eventually a concrete
trunk. I regard the discovery of this tree as of great
interest and probable importance, attaining as it does
such a vast size, and producing a material of apparently
excellent quality. The Indians know it under two
names, the Carzbzsz calling it Touckpong and the
Arawacks Cumakaballi. Noble in all its proportions,
lifting and spreading its massive head above its neigh-
bours, it is one of the largest trees of the forest, and has
a wide and general distribution over the deep belt of low
INDIA-RUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA TREES. 29
country in the colony.* Samples of the rubber of both
this and the Hatie I have sent to England to be tested
as to their probable commercial value.
Attempts have been made to extract caoutchouc by
chemical means from the bark containing it. If this
could be carried out successfully, and with paying results,
every part of the bark might be utilised, just as the
bark of Czmchona is in the production of quinine. The
milk vessels abound all over a tree, as may be seen alike
by cutting the bark of the stem, or that of a twig, and in
breaking off a leaf; though they are proportionally
more plentiful in any given species the thicker the bark is.
Seeing this, it has always appeared to me a loss that
so small a portion of the surface is operated upon.
Where the tree is not cut down, only about eight feet of
the trunk is utilized ; and even when a tree is felled it is
not thought worth while by collectors to spend time
tapping the less productive parts which can be devoted
to the best parts of fresh ones. I speak of existing
circumstances; they might act differently if the trees were
less plentiful. I gathered samples of the bark of the
Hatie and Touckpong, and also of the Balata or Bullet-
tree, for the Government Analyst, Mr. FRANCIS, to make
trial of ; but, as the following extract from a letter he
has sent me shows, he does not regard, from the single
experiment which he describes, the object as feasible
from a commercial point of view. He writes :—
“T found no difficulty in extracting the india-rubber from the sample
of bark you sent me called Touckpong. I placed eight ounces (3,500
* This tree (or one, the rubber of which appears to be identical) cer-
tainly occurs on the high lands (though perhaps in swampy places) of
the Roopoonooni.—Ep,
30 TIMEHRI.
grains) of the finely broken bark in a glass vessel, and just covered it
with a liquid called bisulphide of carbon. After standing for twelve
hours, the bisulphide of carbon was squeezed out from the bark through
acloth. The partially exhausted bark was again treated with bisul-
phide of carbon in the same way, and then the whole of the latter was
evaporated down to dryness in a porcelain basin, and left a residue
consisting of about 100 grains of india-rubber. The result barely
represents three per cent. of rubber in the bark, and it is doubtful
whether such a small quantity would pay for extraction.
‘“T recommend petroleum ether as being a better solvent to use in
this process than bisulphide of carbon. The latter would contaminate
the india-rubber with free sulphur that is nearly always present in it as
an impurity.
‘“‘ Petroleum ether is a cheap—almost a waste—product, but unfor-
tunately owing to the great inflammability it cannot be imported into
this colony except under a duty of three dollars a gallon.
“* Of course in the practical working of a process like this, the solvent
employed—whether bisulphide of carbon or petroleum ether—would be
recovered by distillation from the india-rubber and so could be used
over and over again.”
In face of this unfavourable result, it would be worth
while to experiment with all the india-rubber and gutta-
percha barks produced in the colony. If no other good
came of it, it would determine the relative yield of the
different trees.
In a few places I met with the bullet or balata tree and
the Indians told me it was scattered sparsely over a wide
extent of the banks of the river and its creeks. I was
surprised to hear that the trees were being felled by the
Indians for the balata they yield, at the instance of traders
who travel on the river purchasing the products pro-
curable from the native inhabitants. The privilege
Indians are allowed in regard to cutting timber of a spe-
cified limit as to size, ‘‘to be used by them or to be dis-
posed of by them in the shape of squared timber,” appears
to confer no right to cut for this purpose, and therefore
INDIA-RUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA TREES. 31
in felling, or in tapping trees for the juice of their barks,
they are committing a depredation for which they should
be held responsible on detection. Much more should the
men who instigate them to it for their own profit,
knowing that they could not do it with impunity them-
selves, be severely punished for their villainy. As to this,
however, there seems to exist some difficulty. In res-
ponse to a communication which I addressed to him on
the subject, Mr. IM THURN writes :—
“ The bullet-tree (Mimusops balata) appears to be widely but some-
what thinly scattered throughout the Pomeroon District as a whole ; but
in places it occurs in great plenty. One of the places is said to be at
the head of the Akaiwini creek, which runs into the Pomeroon just
opposite Hackney. And that this information is correct is apparent
from the large amount of balata which is collected and brought down
from the Crown lands up that creek. I have myself seen a bateau
coming from there with over 300 lbs. of this substance. It is collected,
by the most injurious method of felling the trees, chiefly by one man, a
coloured man from the coast, who makes his living, and it is apparently
no bad one, by collecting this balata and a small quantity of locust gum.
This is of course wholesale robbery and wilful destruction of Crown
property ; and I am the Superintendent of Crown lands inthis district !
But though I can lay my hands on this robber, and perhaps on others,
almost any day, I have no power to deal with such cases.”
Having had my special attention called to this matter
by his Excellency the Governor, I availed myself of every
opportunity either for inquiry or of observation. On the
very limited ground I was able to cover on the main
river, as I have said, I met with very few balata trees,
and no tree that had been destroyed. The creek men-
tioned by Mr. 1m THURN [ascended as far as the time at
my disposal would permit, but, unfortunately, as the
land was everywhere flooded, I could land in very few
places. The Akaiwini is, in fact, however, a very consi-
derable river, and the whole period of my leave, could I
32 TIMEHRI.
have spared it, might have been occupied in its explora-
tion. Only its higher reaches appear to be occupied by
Indians, and here the balata tree is said to be more plen-
tiful. So far as I can ascertain, none of this gum is
gathered on the Essequiko or any of its tributary rivers.
A wonderful impetus must have been given to the trade
in Berbice within the last two years. In 1881, 93,573
lbs. was exported, or more than double the quantity of
any previous year.* From the products of our forest
which are utilised, important as they undoubtedly are,
the colony derives hardly any profit, while the forests
are impoverished by wanton waste and the depreda-
tions of the dishonest, and the trade is in the hands
of a few merchants. As to the balata trade, unless some
efficient method of utilising the whole of the bark be
discovered, felling should be prohibited ; and, if, with this
rule, an export tax were imposed, and every package
containing the gum required to bear a special brand
belonging to the grant on which it was gathered, which
would show the production of each grant, a very salutary
change would be effected in the trade.
As the privileges accorded to the aboriginal In-
dians are now under review by the Government,
it may be hoped that the damage done by the nefarious
acts of traders and others, which they are enabled to
perpetrate by means of these people, will not much
longer continue ; though only a new and comprehensive
forest law will meet the whole forest question of the
country. F
* The export of balata for 1882 was 105,112 lbs., valued at
£5,849. 3+ 104.
OOOO OOOO
Essequibo, Berbice and Demerara under the Dutch.
PART I.
By the Editor.
re STE Discovery of Guiana. Rumours of the
: 6, existence in the New World, just discovered
BSA NS beyond the Atlantic, of an empire and city
inexpressibly rich in gold and other treasure floated
through the chief places of the civilized world in the very
beginning of the 16th century. Just before these arose
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS had discovered America, and
soon after, in -1506, he died, yet in the belief that
the land which, having crossed the Atlantic, he first
had touched was but an eastern point of Asia of the
Old World. Very soon those who followed COLUMBUS
announced that the newly discovered land was no part of
Asia but a New World. It is difficulty for us to realize the
full effect of such news. If we try to imagine that in the
present day men, having sailed into perfectly unknown
seas, returned with news that they had discovered
a new continent, huge and rich, we can only very faintly
realize the successive incredulity, wonder, acceptance
of proof, and admiration following on conviction which
would be caused. Yet it was news of this sort that each
ship returning from across the Atlantic made more cer-
tain. And it was not only news of a New World ; it
was of a world in which existed nations of a very high
degree of civilization, and of wealth such as had as yet
only been imagined in dreams ; moreover these nations
E
34 TIMEHRI.
proved utterly powerless to retain their wealth from the
free-booting European soldiers of those days. Nor had
much of the century elapsed before Mexico and Peru
were forced to pour their wealth into European treasure-
houses. It is, therefore, not surprising that the eyes of
all men of enterprize were turned to the West. For the
travellers did not bring back only tales and precious
metals; their ships came freighted with innumerable
strange and rich products from the new country, products
which, however familiar to us now, must then have ap-
peared wonderful beyond all conception.
Especially, these ships brought much gold. Some
valuable and available commodity must be found in
all new countries before these can attract a new
population. It was gold which first drew white men
to America: and it was gold, or rather the rumour
of gold, which drew them to Guiana. For, strangely
enough, though then, and till quite recently, Guiana had
produced no gold, yet it was to that land that the early
explorers pointed as the richest in that metal. To such
elusive tales Guiana owed its fame and owes its earliest
civilization and colonization.
In treating of the first period in the history of Guiana,
the period of its discovery, it is necessary to treat the
country as a whole, and not as distributed, as it after-
ward became, into several colonies and to several na-
tions. Accordingly we must for the present regard
Guiana as extending from the Orinoco on the north to
the Amazon on the south, and from the Atlantic Ocean
to an indefinite point, not even yet determined, on the
west. The origin of the name Guiana is not certain,
but it is probably derived from the name of the large
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 35
but little known Waini River, which runs into the
Atlantic somewhat south of the Orinoco. Such was the
district which, unknown till the very last years of the 15th
century, was regarded during the 16th century as a mys-
terious land full of many marvellous things, and, during
the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries was developed into
the more or less flourishing colonies of the Venezuelan,
British, Dutch and French Guianas.
Rumour said that Guiana was the seat of an empire
not inferior to those of Mexico and Peru ; so that, though
even according to the rumours then current, gold occurred
there in a natural condition, yet it was not this chiefly
which attracted the whole host of explorers. Most
of these looked, not so much for gold which was yet to
be extracted with much labour from the earth, as for a
treasure of gold ready wrought by art into a variety of
forms, of a richness and value such as were only con-
ceivable to the high-pitched, romantic imaginations of
the men of that picturesque age. These treasures,
they thought existed in a great city, called Manoa,
or sometimes El Dorado, the capital of the empire
of Guiana. Rumour had long proclaimed the existence
of El Dorado, but had not always placed it in
Guiana. At first it was supposed to be in New Granada ;
but after even early in the 16th century, it was by com-
mon consent said to be in Guiana. In Sir WALTER
RALEIGH’S time, despite the fact that the rumour of
Manoa had existed long before the conquest of Peru,
it was believed that the empire of Guiana was founded
after the capture of Peru by a member of the royal
family of that empire, who fled with many of his coun-
trymen, and, carrying with him much treasure, founded
E 2
36 TIMEHRI.
the empire of Guiana. RALEIGH, who quotes from
FRANCISCO LOPEZ an account of the possessions of
GUAYNACAPA, Inca of Peru and “ancestor to the Em-
peror of Guiana’’, was evidently inclined to believe that
a court equalling, if not surpassing, that of Peru existed
at Manoa. ‘All the vessels of his home”—he quotes
from LopEz—“ table and kitchen were of gold and silver,
and the meanest of silver and copper for the strength
and hardness of the metal. He had in his wardrobe hol-
low statues of gold which seemed giants, and the figures
in proportion and bigness of all the beasts, birds, trees
and herbs, that the earth bringeth forth; and of all the
fishes that the sea or waters of his kingdom breedeth.
He also had ropes, budgets, chests and troughs of gold
and silver, heaps of billets of gold that seemed wood
marked out to burn. Finally there was nothing in his
country whereof he had not the counterfeit in gold.
Yea, and they say, the Incas had a garden of pleasure
in an island near Puna, where they went to recreate
themselves, when they would take the air of the sea,
which had all kinds of garden herbs, flowers, and trees of
gold and silver, an invention and magnificence till then
never seen. Besides this he had an infinite variety of
silver and gold unwrought in Cuzco, which was lost by
the death of HUASCAR, for the Indians hid it, seeing that
the Spaniards took it and sent it into Spain”. Compar-
ing with this the supposititious empire of Guiana, RALEIGH
further says— The empire of Guiana is directly east from
Peru towards the sea, and lieth under the equinoctial line,
and it hath more abundance of gold than any part of
Peru, and as many and more great cities than ever Peru
had when it flourished most ; it is governed by the same
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 37
laws, and the Emperor and people observe the same
religion, and the same form and policies in government
as was used in Peru, not differing in any part: and
as I have been assured by such of the Spaniards as
have seen Manoa, the imperial city of Guiana, which the
Spaniards call El Dorado, that for greatness, for the
riches, and for the excellent seat, it far exceedeth any of
the world, at least of so much of the world as is known
to the Spanish nation: it is founded upon a lake of salt
water of 200 leagues long like unto the Caspian Sea.”
These passages exhibit the magnificent conception of
Guiana which attracted to those shores so many knightly
adventurers from so many countries.
While so many sought Manoa, one man, according to
his own account, saw it. This was a certain Spaniard
named JUAN MARTINEZ, who when dying at Porto
Rico, presumably about the year 1532, gave an account
of his adventure to certain friars of that place. These
friars having deposited the written account in the
chancery of that place, a copy came by some means
into the hands of DON ANTONIO BERREO, Governor
of Trinidad at the time of Sir WALTER RALEIGH’S
first expedition in search of Guiana.
MARTINEZ’ story was as follows:—DON DIEGO DE
ORDAZ led an expedition, which ended in his own death,
up the Orinoco in 1531. Before the expedition came
to its fatal end, MARTINEZ, who was one of the party,
fell into trouble and was parted from his companions.
The whole store of gunpowder carried by the expedition
exploded, and the blame being attributed to MARTINEZ, he
was accordingly condemned to death. At the entreaty
of the soldiers, with whom he was a great favourite, life
38 TIMEHRI.
was granted to him by ORDAZ; but he was turned
adrift in a canoe, with his arms, but without provisions,
to drift down the river. Certain people of Guiana rescued
him and, never before having seen a man of his colour
or kind, carried him to the city of Manoa as a curiosity.
The journey occupied fourteen or fifteen days, during
which time he was led blindfolded by the Indians. At
last they reached the end of their journey ; and MARTINEZ,
his eyes being at last unbound, entering the vast city at
noon one day, travelled through it all that day and from the
rising to the setting of the sun on the next day, before he
reached the palace of the Inca. The Inca _ receiving
him kindly, entertained him in his palace for seven
months. MARTINEZ gave a wonderful account of the
wealth and beauty of the city. It was he who gave
the city its name of E] Dorado; for he said “at the times
of their solemn feasts when the Emperor carouseth with
his captains, tributories, and governors, the manner is
thus: All those that pledge him are first stripped
naked, and their bodies anointed all over with a kind of
white balsamum of which there is a great plenty and yet
very dear among them, and it is of all others the most
precious, of which we have had good experience : when
they are anointed all over, certain servants of the
Emperor, having prepared gold made into fine powder,
blow it through hollow canes upon their naked bodies
until they be all shining from the foot to the head, and in
this sort they sit drinking by twenties and hundreds
and continue in drunkenness sometimes six or seven
days together. . . . . . . Upon this sightand for
the abundance of gold which he saw in the city, the
images of gold in their temples, the armours, and shields
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 39
of gold which they use in their wars, he called it El
Dorado.” At last, at the end of seven months, the Inca,
having loaded MARTINEZ with presents, allowed him to
depart, and sent an escort of Guianians with him. All went
well until the party came near the Orinoco, where lived
the Orenoqueponi. These people fell upon him, drove
back his escort, and robbed him of all but some gourds
which were really full of curiously wrought gold beads,
but which they supposed contained only provision for
the journey. They however allowed him to pass ; and
he went down the Orinoco by canoe to Trinidad; whence
he passed to Marguerita and finally to Porto Rico,
where he died.
Such was the story told by MARTINEZ. It appeared
credible to many at the time, and encouraged many in their
search for Manoa. Of course we now know that it was a
fiction ; but it is worth noting that it was apparently
concocted by a man who had really been in the country
of which he told. Various matters, each slight in itself,
point to this conclusion. A few of these will suffice
as examples. In the first place, MARTINEZ said that he
was 15 or 16 days in reaching Manoa from the banks
of the Orinoco; now this would really be about the
time occupied in reaching the place which trustworthy
authorities have now fixed as the supposed site of
Manoa. In the second place, the account of the festivals
of the Guianians reads exceedingly like a_ very
greatly exaggerated account of the paiwari-feasts now,
and probably then, held by the Indians. When, he said,
the people of Manoa were about to commence their
drinking bouts, they used to anoint their naked bodies
with a kind of balsamum, and gold dust was then blown
40 TIMEHRI.
on to their bodies until they shone from head to foot, and
that in this state they sat drinking by twenties and hun-
dreds sometimes for six or seven days together. Now,
before their paiwari-feasts the Indians gather together
in great numbers, anoint their naked bodies with various
kinds of oil, and then having covered themselves with
paints, red, blue, white and yellow, and having put on
gorgeous feather ornaments and much other finery, they
drink and enjoy themselves incessantly for many days
and nights.
Again another circumstance, noted, not specially by
MARTINEZ, but by nearly all the explorers of the 16th
century, confirms this supposition that “the Guianians’’
were really only the Indians of the country, the ancestors
of those who inhabit the country to this day. The gold
and precious metals obtained from the Guianians were
most frequently in the shape of crescents; “ croissants
of gold, for of that form the Guianians most commonly
make them’’ wrote RALEIGH. These can hardly be any-
thing else than the crescent-shaped nose-pieces and ear-
rings, made now-a-days of such baser metals as silver
and copper, which are worn, suspended from the carti-
lage of the nose or from the ears, by the Macusis, Wapi-
anas, and, probably, by other Indians. The Macusis now
inhabit the very district, between the Roopoonooni and
the Rio Branco, where was the supposed site of El Do-
rado; and, as Sir ROBERT SCHOMBURGK has pointed
out, there is good reason for supposing that this tribe
in the 16th century lived also on, or near, the Orinoco.
HuMBOLDT and others have shown that the physical
features which were attributed to the sight of Manoa
occur ata plain, called Lake Amoocoo, which lies between
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 41
the Roopoonooni, the Takootoo, and the Rio Branco.
There seems every reason for supposing that this is really
the spot, known then only slightly from accounts received
by Indians, upon which the imagination of Europeans
placed Manoa. This was the point which all strove
vainly to reach. Had any reached it, they would have
found no gorgeous city, but only mountains rising from
a grass plain inhabited by a few scattered, naked Indians
and flooded in wet seasons by the rivulets which at other
times run across it. All these circumstances tend to
show that there was some very slight foundation of fact
underlying the gorgeous fables of Guiana. But these
fables themselves at present claim our notice.
The wealth of Guiana was not the only marvel told
of the place. The land was, indeed, full of marvels. A
very curious map of Guiana published in the 16th century,
not only has some of the wonders of the country
depicted on its face, but is accompanied by descrip-
tions and plates of the Amazons, of men of the head-
less tribe, and of other remarkable Guianians. The
Amazons were a tribe of women who lived and
fought by themselves except for a day or two during
each year, when they received male visitors from
other tribes. All children born of them, if boys were
killed, if girls were trained up as Amazons. They
would seem to have been most bitter man-haters. The
plate devoted to them shows two men, their naked
bodies transfixed with arrows, tied to the branch of a
tree, each by one leg. A party of nine women are
shooting more arrows into these poor wretches, while
another woman carefully tends a slow, or at least a very
smoky, fire directly under the victims. In the back
r
42 TIMEHRI.
ground a band of Amazons is repelling a party of men
who, undeterred by the fate of the two other members of
their sex, are attempting toland from a canoe. Another
plate represents the headless people of Guiana, whose
hair grew from their shoulders, whose faces were on their
breasts.
Throughout the 16th century, adventurers stirred by
these reports of wealth and marvels, and excited by
thoughts of the vast and splendid treasure plundered
from Mexico and Peru, sought for Guiana. Spaniards,
_ Portuguese, Englishmen, Frenchmen, each jealous of the
other, strove to be the first to explore and take hold of
E] Dorado. Nor were the Dutch behind hand; though
these, ever mindful of commerce, devoted themselves
not so much to a search for gold as to developing a
trade with Guiana. Probably this difference in aim was
also due to some extent to the fact that the hereditary
leaders of the Dutch—and it was the nobles of the other
nations who chiefly instigated, and even led, the expedi-
tions in search of gold—were fully occupied at home in
freeing their country from the dominion of Spain and in
erecting the Dutch Republic. So it happened that of
the Dutch voyagers to the New World, most were
traders. We shall presently see how, not to the gold-
seeking nations, but to these Dutch traders, was chiefly
due the creation, in the land which during the 16th
century was only just discernible behind a cloud of
fanciful myths, of such business-like colonies as the
Guianas of the 18th and 1gth century.
Having sketched the object of the search, it is ne-
cessary now to give some account of the adventures
of the seekers.
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 43
Whether COLUMBUS himself ever saw Guiana is a
disputed question, to which no certain answer will now
probably ever be given. It is, however, at least certain
that, if he did not reach the coast of Guiana, he was very
near its most northerly point.
Two of the little: band of daring voyagers of whom
COLUMBUS had been the leader very soon afterward
passed close along the shores of Guiana or the ‘‘ Wild
Coast”? asit was soon afterward called. One of them
ALONZO DE OJEDA, in 1499 reached the point where
Surinam now is, and coasted northward past the mouths
of the Essequibo and the Orinoco. The other, VINCENTE
JANEZ PINZON, brother of the more famous man of the
same name, in the same or the following year discovered
the mouth of the Maranon, or as it was afterward called,
the Amazon. The discovery of the mouth, and nothing
but the mouth, of the great river Amazon will presently
gain further interest from the story of another voyager.
From the Maranon, PINZON also codsted northward along
the shores of Guiana. During these and similar expeditions
the Spaniards seem to have ascended more than one of
the rivers of Guiana for some distance, and were sur-
prised, says HERERA, at their size and appearance. It
appears to have been about this time also (1500) that,
not only vague rumours of the existence of treasure, but
more certain news that Manoa existed in that country,
a long way behind the Wild Coast, réached the Spaniards
and, through them, the rest of the world. Then the
search began in earnest.
At first the Orinoco, which bounds Guiana on the north,
was regarded as the most feasible route to Manoa: The
Spaniards were already established in Trinidad just
F 2
44 TIMEHRI.
opposite one of the mouths of that river; that island,
therefore, served as the starting point for many adven-
turous expeditions, all directed to one end. There is no
need or space to chronicle all of these; but a few may
be mentioned. In 1531 DON DIEGO DE ORDAZ, who had
been in Mexico with CORTEZ, taking MARTINEZ as his
“master of the munition” ascended the Orinoco as far
as the cataract of Atures, where, principally owing to
the hostility of the Indians, he was obliged to turn back.
It is worth noting that from first to last the search
expeditions of the Spaniards seem to have failed especi-
ally from one cause—their treatment of the Indians
through whose lands they passed. The expedition of
ORDAZ is principally interesting from two causes ; firstly,
it was that in which MARTINEZ got into the trouble
which, as has already been told, led to his visit to Manoa ;
and secondly, because ORDAZ either found or more pro-
bably formed a small Spanish settlement at the mouth
of Caroni. This settlement afterward became the town
of Santo Thomé de Guiana which, after having been
destroyed by the Dutch in 1579, was again rebuilt and
became memorable in connection with Sir WALTER
RALEIGH’S second voyage to Guiana. Again in 1533
another Spaniard, ALONZO DE HERERA, tried to force his
way up the same river: but he, also, getting into trouble
with the Indians, was killed by a poisoned arrow.
The most daring of all the expeditions the aim of
which was the discovery of Manoa must now be told.
All history contains no more amazingly bold story of
travel than that which tells how FRANCISCO ORELLANA
crossed the perfectly unknown continent of America
from west to east, by way of the Amazon, and thus first
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 45
of all white men passed along the southern limit
of Guiana. In 1540, GONZALO PIZARRO accompanied
by ORELLANA, they having heard a rumour that
the river Coca, which flows westward from Quito and
which in its lower course takes the name of Napo, ran
into a great river on which stood the long sought
Golden City,* started to prove the truth of this rumour.
Soon after reaching the Napo, PIZARRO and ORELLANA
parted, the expedition being in great difficulties owing
to illness and want of provisions. ORELLANA was sent
forward in search of food. But before long, perhaps
alarmed at the strength of the current which had car-
ried him so far and dreading the difficulty of returning,
or, more probably, eager himself to lead an expedition
of adventure, he determined to leave PIZARRO to his
fate and to continue his own course. Past him ran
the swift river which had borne him so far and which
flowed, he knew not how, into a great, utterly unknown
and, to an extent now hard to realize, marvellous-
seeming country. To return even from the point where
he then was would have been difficult, but with each
day’s further journey return would become more and
more hopelessly impossible. Yet, with apparently little
or no hesitation, he determined to go on with the
river; and thus, as it were, he hurled himself and his
companions into the unknown. And in the end, having
peen carried by the river right across the southern con-
tinent of America, he was delivered by it to the Atlantic.
* It is curious that this rumour was so far correct that the supposed
site of Manoa is on the small river Pirara, the waters of which find their
way through the Ireng, Takootoo, Rio Branco and Rio Negro into the
“ Great river” 7.e. the Amazon.
A6 TIMEHRI.
The Napo had carried him into a vast river, and that
had carried him into the ocean on the eastern side of
America. The river mouth through which he passed to
the sea was recognised as that same ‘ mouth of the Mar-
anon’ which PINZON had discovered in 1499. PINZON
had indeed discovered the mouth of the greatest river of
South America, but ORELLANA had traversed its whole
course.
There was some attempt to change the name from
Maranon to that of its first explorer; but though OREL-
LANA did indeed give the river its modern name, that
name was, not his own, but one which was derived from
a story told by him. He, the boaster, told many tales
of the difficulties and marvels through which he had
forced his way. He had not seen Manoa but he had
passed through nations incredibly rich in gold. He had
had many battles to fight with these Indians. He had
fought not only with fierce men, but with women more
warlike than the men; and these warrior-women were,
he thought, the Amazons whose existence in America,
had before been rumoured. It was from this last story
that the river took its name, and was called the Amazon.
As the Orinoco bounds Guiana on the north, so the
Amazon bounds it on the south. ° ORELLANA was, there-
fore, the first to define these southern limits of Guiana.
After the discovery of the course of the Amazon, it
was regarded as rivalling the Orinoco as a probable route
by which Manoa might be reached. More especially,
the French, who even before this had been in the habit
of trading with the Indians of Brazil for native produce,
made more than one fruitless expedition up that river in
search for El Dorado.
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 47
Meanwhile the Dutch, who throughout the latter half
of that century seem to have occupied themselves in
establishing a trade in the native products of Guiana,
began in 1580 to establish their earliest settlements on
the Wild Coast. A settlement was established in 1580
by a party of Dutch traders on or near the Pomeroon
River ; and other, similar settlements were founded just
within the mouth of the Essequibo. As early as 1581
the Dutch States General took official and approving
notice of these settlements ; but the further progress of
this movement, which finally resulted in the establish-
ment of various colonies, does not come within our
present notice.
When the century closed, the search for El Dorado was
still in progress. DON ANTONIO DE BERREO, Governor
of Trinidad in 1595, before that time had vainly at-
tempted to make his way into Guiana. Even while he
was preparing a third expedition for the same purpose, —
on the 23rd of March, 1595, Sir WALTER RALEIGH
arrived in Trinidad, on his way to Guiana, and took
BERREO prisoner. At first. BERREO grudgingly tried to
dissuade RALEIGH from his enterprize ; but finding this
useless, having shown his copy of the dying declaration
of JUAN MARTINEZ, he more than ever confirmed
RALEIGH in his determination to continue,
RALEIGH’S expeditions, two in number, were after all
not very successful. On the first occasion he ascended
the winding course of the Orinoco for 250 miles to the
mouth of the River Caroni, and actually saw the Pacaraima
mountains the other side of which is the plain of Manoa,
but from that point he was obliged to turn homeward.
He had however established most friendly relations with
48 TIMEHRI.
the natives, one of whom voluntarily returned with him
to England. Undeterred he made up his mind to return,
and adds that if he fails ‘and if any else shall be
enabled thereunto, and conquers the same, I assure him
thus much he shall perform more than ever was done in
Mexico, by CORTEZ, or in Peru by PIZARRO, whereof the
‘one conquered the Empire of Montezuma, the other
of Huascar and Atahualpa.” From these words it is
evident that he still retained his belief in the riches of
Guiana, while from other passages it is evident that he,
in common with the rest of the world, now expected to
obtain not only imperial treasures from Guiana, but vast
quantities of gold and precious metals from mines which
he supposed to exist.
RALEIGH tells his adventures during this expedition
so vividly that the traveller who has had experience
of that part of the world, as he reads, sees the whole
scene before him. Much of the country remains
to-day as it was in the beginning of the r7th century.
The long monotonous river-reaches reflecting a burn-
ing sun, the densely tree-covered banks, the forms
of animal life, the occasional appearance of canoes
filled with Indians, the terrified flight of these Indians
at the first sight of the white man, their hospitality
and kindness when persuaded of the peaceful inten-
tions of their strange visitor, their habits, their feasts,
their large promises of help, their performance of some of
these promises, their lazy, careless, good-tempered delay
in the performance of others, all these details and many
others are incidents in the life of the traveller of to-day
exactly as in that of RALEIGH and his party. The modern
traveller sees the adventures of that band of 17th century
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 49
explorers far more clearly than it is generally possible
to see from a distance of two centuries anda half.
Another feature in RALEIGH’S voyage is of special in-
terest. Throughout the whole account of the expedition the
reader can not but feel much satisfaction at the evidence
of the leader’s kindly treatment of the natives, a kindness
to which he owed any small success which he had. In
the course of a few years, RALEIGH by gentle measures
more nearly penetrated into Guiana than former explorers
because of their savage and thoughtless cruelty had done
in more than a century. RALEIGH endeared himself to
the natives in a way which ought for ever to add lustre to
his name. Long after his departure we hear that the
Indians of the Orinoco looked and longed for his prom-
ised return. But they were never again to see him.
RALEIGH, after the failure of his first expedition, did
not abandon his design on Guiana. Two expeditions
were despatched by him to Guiana; one under Captain
LAURENCE KEyMIS in 1596, and the second under Cap-
tain LEONARD BERRIE, in the end of the same year.
KEYMIS’S voyage has considerable interest in that he ex-
plored for some distance from their mouths, several rivers
between the Orinoco and the Amazon ; and, counting
these rivers, he found that they were sixty-seven in
number.
But after the death of Queen ELIZABETH, RALEIGH,
being in great disgrace with her successor, was
thrown into the Tower, and was tried for high
treason in 1603. The trial resulted in the well known
iniquitous sentence of death. The execution of the sen-
tence was, however, long deferred and RALEIGH lan-
guished for a long time in the Tower. During this time
G
50 TIMEHRI.
of captivity he seems frequently to have turned his
thoughts to Guiana. At last, in 1617 he bribed the
avaricious JAMES, by continually setting forth the
wealth to be acquired from Guiana and the impor-
tance of its conquest, to allow him freedom and
opportunity to sail westward once more. There is
surely something pathetic in the story of this brilliant
and accomplished gentleman languishing in prison, plan-
ning and longing for another hazardous journey into the
wild, free and. unknown forests of Guiana, at last gain-
ing freedom and, as it appeared, pardon, and setting
sail. Nor is the end of the story, the failure of the
expedition, the return of the adventurer, and the cold-
blooded execution of the long delayed sentence of death
any less pathetic. If the myth of the Golden City on
the shores of the white lake gives a romantic tinge to the
first period of the history of Guiana, the story of Sir
WALTER certainly imparts a yet more vivid and a
deeper dye.
On the 2oth of March 1617 RALEIGH, with his son,
sailed in the “ Destiny’? from London on the second
voyage to Guiana. Five other ships accompanied him.
The little fleet was driven by foul weather into Cork;
from which place they did not again set sail till the 19th
of August. Much sickness, many deaths, and long con-
tinuance of foul weather befell the expedition before
they anchored on the other side of the Atlantic at Cape
Orange, on the 11th of November. Some time was spent
at the mouth of the Cayenne river in cleaning the ships
and refreshing the crews. On the 1oth of December
from a group of islands which RALEIGH calls ‘ the
Triangles,” he sent a party, with which went his own
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 51
son, under command of Captain KEyMIS to make for
the Orinoco. Meanwhile he himself, sick and despond-
ent, with the rest of the fleet sailed for Trinidad, where he
lay waiting till the 13th of February, in long and anxious
suspense as to the fate of the Orinoco expedition. At
last the suspense ended. A letter giving an account of his
failure was received from KEYMIS.
The expedition had reached the town of Santo Thomé,
near the mouth of the Caroni, on the 12th of January,
(1618) ; and in an assault on the town made that night
young WALTER RALEIGH had been killed. The
Spaniards had been expelled from the town; but
the English had been disappointed in their hope
of finding treasure. KEYMIS, having established
himself in Santo Thomé, had sent an exploring party
up the river as far as the mouth of the Guarico, a dis-
ance of 110 leagues ; but the party had returned at the end
of 20 days without having found a way into Guiana, At
last, in want of provisions, and continually harassed by
the ejected Spaniards, KEYMIS, about the end of Janu-
ary, had made up his mind to return.
Such was the news contained in the letter received
by RALEIGH ; and it was after a time followed by the arri-
val of KEyMISs and his party. When the two old friends
and fellow-travellers met, KEYMIS seems hastily to have
made somewhat ungracious excuses for the misfortunes
which had overtaken him. RALEIGH, who with a true
instinct foresaw his own ruin in the failure of the expe-
dition, answered bitterly in the tone of a fallen man
deceived by a former friend and faithful servant. Full
of self-reproach and stung to the quick by the re-
buke, KEYMIS first shot and then stabbed himself. ‘His
G2 5
52 TIMEHRI.
boy going into the cabin found him lying upon his bed
with much blood by him, and looking into his face saw
that he was dead.”
A few words suffice to finish the story. RALEIGH’S return
to England, his surrender of himself, and the execution
on him of the suspended sentence of death, nominally
for the old offence, but really in order to satisfy the
Spanish Ambassador, who was loudly complaining of the
attack on Santo Thomé and of other of RALEIGH’S deeds
against the Spaniards, not only form the closing scene
in the life of the great English seeker for the Golden
City, but also coincide virtually with the time at which
Guiana became no longer the scene of that famous search
for imaginary gold but of a trade in the real wealth
of its natural products.
2. The founding of the Colonies, A. D. 1580—1745.
In passing from the romance of the discovery of Guiana
to the history of its colonization, it is as well to try to
realize the nature of the land of Guiana as it appeared
to its earlier colonists. They still only knew its sea-
board and the lower reaches of some of the big rivers.
The courses of the Orinoco and the Amazon, were
sufficiently known to serve as the boundaries of Guiana
on the North West and South East. Of the rivers be-
tween these, the Pomeroon, the Essequibo, the Berbice,
the Surinam, and the Cayenne, the lower reaches were
early settled, but it was long before these were penetrated
to any great distance from the sea.
The interior of the country was, in fact, entirely un-
known except from the accounts of the Indians and of the
one or two travellers, not of the most trustworthy kind,
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 53
who claimed to have been there. There was, therefore, no
certainty as to how far Guiana extended to the west.
Two views seem to have been held. One was that the
Amazon and the Orinoco started from the same point and
that these two rivers thus bounded two sides, not of a
quadrilateral, but of a triangular land of which the
Atlantic formed the remaining side. A slight variation
of this view was that not these two great rivers, but
a branch from each somewhere met*; and curiously
enough it is actually a fact that it is possible to
pass from the Orinoco to the Amazon by water. The
second view as to the western limit of Guiana was that
it was formed only by the sea on the other side of the
continent ; for ina grant of the date 1663, to which |
shall presently have occasion to refer, Guiana, is
6
described as ‘extending from the sea southwards to the
heads of certain rivers and thence by direct lines to the
South Sea.”+ But the question as to how far from the
Atlantic, Guiana might extend was rather of speculative
than of practical interest to the early colonists ; for they
found that the task of founding colonies even on the
sea-board was almost more than they could accomplish.
The natives in a new country are often the greatest
hindrance to settlers, but in Guiana the Indians, who
were the only inhabitants, were, when well treated,
the very opposite. We shall presently see how those
settlers who used the Indians kindly almost always
survived and flourished, while those who did the opposite
perished. At the present day the Indians, wherever they
retain their own peculiar habits, will do anything for a
* Description of Guiana (by Major John Scott ?) among Sloane MSS,
+ Calendar of State Papers, Col. Series, Vol, v. p. 131.
54 TIMEHRI.
white man who is kind to them; and from very many
contemporary statements, it is very evident that their
bearing was the same to the early settlers. For example,
in an English State-paper concerning Guiana, dated
1663, itis said that ‘the Christians in these parts take
no pains or labour for anything; the Indians house them,
and bring them victuals, receiving iron-work, or glass
beads or such like contemptible things in return.’* Had
their simplicity and kindliness been everywhere rightly
used, not only would the early settlers have met with
much less misfortune, but the Indians would by this
time have been turned into useful labourers. At any
rate, it may be safely affirmed that the Indians were
naturally of a friendly disposition towards the first
white visitors.
The various European nations which had engaged in
the search for Guiana all after its discovery struggled to
make settlements in the land and to possess it. The
degree of success which attended the efforts of each was
various and not always proportionate to the success
which had attended the endeavour of each to discover.
No nation had sought more eagerly for Guiana than had
Spain; and alone of the competing nations Spain had
no success in colonizing the discovered land on the
southern side of the Orinoco. France, too, made some
efforts both to discover and to settle, but without very
important result. The two chief colonizing nations were
the Dutch and the English ; and of these the former had
from the first laboured to settle rather than to explore.
From the date of the formation of the first successful
* Calendar of State Papers, Col. Series. Vol. i. p. 36.
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 55
settlement, in 1580, for more than eighty years, till
1663, France, Holland and England were competing
with more or less success against each other for the
possession of Guiana. Each of these three nations at
first tried to form settlements at various points along the
whole coast ; but each after a time succeeded in gaining
a footing along a distinct part of the coast, the Dutch
nearest the Orinoco, the English eastward of the Dutch
and the French eastward of the English. A brief sketch
of the success of these three nations, and of the abor-
tive efforts of Spain, during this period of eighty years,
must suffice.
Despite their ultimate failure, to Spain belongs the
merit of having founded the earliest settlement in Guiana.
As early as 1531, or perhaps in the following year, DIEGO
DE ORDAZ of whom mention has already been made,
founded a settlement at the mouth of the River Caroni,
on the eastern bank of the Orinoco. This, which after-
ward received the name of Santo Thomé de Guayana, was
destroyed by the Dutch in 1579, and, being rebuilt near
the old site, was again destroyed, as has been told, by
KEYMIS in 1618.* A second settlement is also said to have
been formed by Spaniards, under GASPAR DE SOTELLE,
at Cayenne, in 1568, but this, having endured for five
years, was then destroyed by the Indians of the district.t+
This latter is as far as I know, the only recorded Spanish
settlement south of the Orinoco. But in 1593 BERREO,
* RALEIGH’S ‘ Discoverie of Guiana’—Hakluyt Society, p. 79. This
settlement is also mentioned in the MS ‘ Description of Guiana’ which is,
in the Sloane Collection, but the founder is there said to have been, not
OrpAz, but PEDRO DE Acosta.
+ See the same MS. ‘ Description of Guiana.’
56 TiMEHRI.
the Spanish Governor of Trinidad, the same who was
afterward RALEIGH’S great opponent, formally took
possession of Guiana for his master PHILIP the Second.
Two years later RALEIGH reached Guiana and broke the
shadow of Spanish power along the whole of that coast.
It is perhaps worth noting that Guiana, which is the only
civilised district of South America which was never for
any time subject to Spaniards or to their kindred the
Portuguese, is also the district in which order and civili-
zation have been most uniformly maintained.
_ All the French attempts to settle in Guiana took place
within the eighty years (1580-1660) which, as I have
pointed out, formed the chief period of colonization. The
first settlement was in 1607 on the Wiapoca, not far
from the Cayenne for the cultivation of tobacco. These
settlers after a time quarrelled with the Indians, and
were by them almost entirely annihilated in 1609. A
second party of Frenchmen tried to settle in 1613 at
Cayenne, where, as we have seen, Spaniards had before
settled and been destroyed by the Indians; but the new
comers too were, some destroyed, some driven away,
within a few months by the natives. Yet another attempt
was made in 1625, when two shiploads of French settlers
landed at Meriwinia; but another ship coming to the
same place not long afterward found no single one of
those settlers in that place. Again, in 1626 a party of
Frenchmen established themselves on the Suramaco ; but
these, after lingering for three years, removed to the island
of St. Christopher. In 1639 a second French settlement
‘was formed on the Suramaco, but was again destroyed
by Indians, all the settlers being killed in a single day,
Yet once more, in or about 1642, Frenchmen settled on
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 57
the Suramaco and at Cayenne.* Of these last settlers,
though a great many were again killed by Indians, some
perhaps survived at Cayenne and formed the nucleus of
the present French colony at that place; at any rate, it
seems certain that that colony dates from about this time.
It represents the only successful attempt at colonization
by the French in Guiana. I shall have occasion to
mention it but once more.
The story of the Dutch settlements, to which we now
turn, is one of far greater success. It may be repeated that
while most of the settlements which have already been
mentioned perished through the wantonly provoked ill-will
of the Indians, those of the Dutch, who exerted them-
selves to establish friendly relations with the Indians,
flourished in spite of many vicissitudes. As showing
another cause of this success, it is also note-worthy that
the Dutch, devoting themselves from-the first simply to
the establishment of a trade in the known and useful
producis of the Guiana coast, left it to other nations to
search for the expected gold and other treasure, and that
they would, had they been allowed, have led a peaceful
life without disturbing the colonists of other nations near
them. Moreover, certain similarities between the natural
features of Guiana and those of their old homes in Holland
made their new home less repellent and disheartening to
the Dutch than to men from other countries. Guiana,
like the Netherlands, was a country of rich soil, barely on
a level with the sea ; sucha place, while it would offer but
few attractions to others, seemed home-like to the Dutch,
* On all these French colonies see the Sloane Collection M.S. ‘ De-
scription of Guiana’.
H
58 TIMEHRI.
and at the same time seemed little likely to be perma-
nently occupied by other nations.
As early as 1580 certain Dutch traders established a
settlement on the eastern bank of the Pomeroon River ;
and even in the first year after its formation this settle-
ment was recognised by the home government. A Dutch
population gradually spread along the banks of this river
and long flourished, though never developing a colony with
a distinct government. Ata considerably later period, in
fact between 1650-’60, a vain attempt to give new vitality
to the settlements on the Pomeroon was made, by build-
ing the two towns of New Zealand and New Middleburg.
Traces of Dutch life on this river are still to be seen on
the deserted river-banks, in abandoned coffee plantations,
in groves of arnatto plants, long cultivated as a culinary
dye used in place of cochineal, in ruined wells and
remains of walls built of small, very regular Dutch bricks,
in solitary cocoanut, and other foreign palms, in huge
splendidly graceful and most stately clumps of bamboos,
in solitary tomb-stones under these bamboos, and, it is
said, in the remains of a canal which once connected
the Pomeroon with the mouth of the Essequibo. No
colony, however, ever developed itself on the Pomeroon ;
though it was from there that the first settlers were sent to
the Essequibo,* there to found the earliest of the per-
manent settlements of Guiana.
In, or about, the same year in which settlements
were formed from the Pomeroon at the mouth of the
* The origin of the name of the Essequibo is not certain. It is usu-
ally said to have been named after JUAN p’EZQUIBEL, a companion of
Co.tumsus. But it should be observed that the Carib Indian name for
the river is Scapi or, more correctly Esscapio
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 59
neighbouring river Essequibo another settlement was
made on the Abary, a small river which runs into the
sea about half way between the Demerara and the
Berbice. The latter of these settlements seems to
have had a much shorter, and even less eventful life
than those on the Pomeroon; but the former, that on
Essequibo, was the germ which afterwards developed
into the colony of the same name which was the
first, and long the most important colony in Guiana.
The settlers at first took more and more land into cul-
tivation at the mouth of the river and developed a
very considerable trade with the Indians. But in 1596
this prosperity began to be roughly disturbed by roving
bands of Spaniards; the settlements were again and
again destroyed, and the inhabitants were (in 1616?)
compelled to retire some forty miles up the river, to the
point where the Cuyuni joinsthe Mazeruni just before the
latter river flows into the Essequibo. There they estab-
lished their head quarters ona tiny island to which they
gave the name Kykoverall, from the wide view along
three huge rivers which it affords, and on which
they found the remains of a small Portuguese fort,
the earlier history of which was, and is, entirely un-
known. After this, Dutch cultivation spread rapidly
along both banks of the Essequibo for some distance up
its course, and, somewhat less extensively, along the
Mazeruni and Cuyuni.
To turn for a moment from the colony of Essequibo :
In the year 1615, two hundred and fifty Dutchmen from
Zealand had landed at Cayenne; but, probably because
other colonists, Spanish and French, had attempted that
place before and had left an evil reputation, these Dutch-
H 2
60 TIMEHRI.
men for once failed to establish friendly relations with
the Indians ; in default of which they were obliged to
quit the place within the year of their arrival.
The year 1616 was an eventful one in Essequibo; for
the chief authority there then fell into the hands of a man
named GROMWEAGLE who seems to have been qualified
in a very remarkable degree for the work which he had to
perform. To him that colony, the mother of all the others
which grew up in what is now British Guiana, owed much
of its success. The recorded events of history, unfortu-
nately few in number, therefore deserve some notice.
GROMWEAGLE * was a Dutchman, born in 1581, who,
serving in various Spanish expeditions in the Orinoco,
acquired so great a liking for the adventures incident to
a life in Guiana that, having heard that his own coun-
trymen from Zealand were establishing themselves
more firmly on the Essequibo than the Spaniards were
likely ever to doin any part of Guiana, he asked for
employment from his own countrymen and was sent out
from Zealand, in what capacity does not appear very cer-
tainly, in 1616 with three ships, ‘and was the first man
who took firm footing on Guiana by the good liking of
the nations, whose humours the gentleman perfectly
understood.’ According to the document from which I
am now quoting, it was he who erected the fort on the
island of Kykoverall; but, from other sources, it seems
almost certain that he only strengthened it and adopted
it as his stronghold. All his time the colony flourished ;
* For the facts of this story 1 am indebted once more tocertain M.S.S.
in the Sloane Collection, to which my attention was especially called
by my friend N. DARNELL Davis, to whom | take this opportunity of
offering great thanks for this, and much other kindness,
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 61
he traded largely even with the Spaniards, and behaved
himself in a friendly way to all colonists in that part of
the world, and especially to the English who were then
newly established in Barbados. Having served the colony
for forty-eight years he died in 1664. The reason of his
success it is not difficult to find, and has already been told;
it lay especially in his wise treatment of the Indians and
also in his neglect to spend time and means in har-
assing Europeans of other nationalities in neighbouring
colonies. The following well illustrates his habits in
both of these ways. Acertain man named POWELL, who
had served with GROMWEAGLE under the King of Spain
in the West Indies, took possession of the island of Bar-
bados about 1625 and founded an English settlement there.
The new settlers had no stock of food-producing plants
suited to their new home, nor even if they had had them,
would they have known how to cultivate such. In this
emergency POWELL sent his son THOMAS to his old com-
rade GROMWEAGLE in Essequibo with a request for such
thingsas were proper to plant for food and for trade.
GROMWEAGLE “willing to gratify an old friend, persuaded
a family of Arawacoes, consisting of forty persons, to at-
tend POWELL to Barbados, to learn the English to plant,
and to carry with them cassava, yams, Indian corn, and
other pulses, plantains, bananas, oranges, lemons, limes, the
pine-apple, melons, &c., and, for to produce a trade, they
carried over tobacco, cotton, and annatta, a rich dye
(a commodity the English never yet know how to
manage *) ; to all which Barbados was naturally a stran-
* It must be remembered that this was written by an Englishman, one
well acquainted with Barbados, and, at the time he wrote, hostile to the
Dutch,
62 TIMEHRI.
ger. The Indians fell to planting soon after their arrival
at Barbados, and all things grew well and came to great
perfection, agreeing with the soil and clime, and they
soon had all things necessary for life....... Captain GROM-
WEAGLE had undertaken ... that at the expiration of two
years, if they did not like the country, or should upon
any other occasion desire to go back to Dissekeeb, they
should be transported with their reward, which was to be
fifty pounds sterling in axes, bills, hoes, knives, looking-
glasses, and beades.” ‘This certainly shows that the in-
fluence of GROMWEAGLE was great with the Indians, and
also considerable generosity to the English who were
even then very jealous of the Dutch in Guiana. Unfor-
tunately GROMWEAGLE afterward had considerable rea-
son to regret his kind action. POWELL himself behaved
well in the matter ; but he kept his authority in Barbados
only for three years, after which he was superseded by
other English governors, who repudiated his share of the
bargain, and, the Indians objecting, “made slaves of them,
separating the husbands and wives of some, parents and
children of others, one from another.” At last one of
these Indians escaped, and, getting on board a Dutch
ship, reached Essequibo and there told the story to the
rest of his tribe: “which prceved of all consequence to
Captain GROMWEAGLE, who had like to have lost his
colonie for that cause only, and was forced to marry a
woman of the Careebee nation, to balance the power of
the Arawacoes, and afterward was at the charge of great
presents to make up the business between the Dutch and
the Arawacoes nation.” It is evident that GROMWEAGLE
understood the value of the balance of power and was
prepared to go to any length to maintain it.
2
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 63
Various internal affairs of great importance also hap-
pened in Essequibo during the rule of GROMWEAGLE.
The traders to the colony were incorporated in 1621
into the Dutch West India Company, into whose hands
passed what was virtually a monopoly of trade between
this part of Guiana and the world beyond. The first
act of this company, or indeed it may be said, the
purpose for which it was instituted, was to introduce
negroes as slaves into Guiana. This was part of the natu-
ral course of events. The trade in negroes, which had
been begun, by the Portugese, in the middle of the 15th
century, was flourishing in the 17th century. In Guiana
the soil was rich and promising; but this was almost
useless to its owners owing to the climate, which is such
as to prevent Europeans from seriously undertaking field
labour ; nor were the natives of the country, the Indians,
apt for continued hard work. The natives of Africa
were the very people to do what was required, to ex-
tract the wealth of Guiana for their Dutch owners. It
was an eventful undertaking.
The plantations at once became yet more flourishing ;
nor were they much longer confined to the Essequibo.
In 1626, JAN VAN PEERE, a man from Flushing, settled
on the Berbice River, and there soon put a considerable
extent of ground under cultivation. It was in 1614
that, by the official recognition of the Dutch govern-
ment, the settlements on the Essequibo became a
colony. Berbice became a colony in the same way in
1627, when the government of the Seven Provinces
extended such rights of trade as they had before given
to the West India Company to VAN PEERE.
Passing on to 1650, it must be noted that in that year
64 TIMEHRI.
there was a large accession of Dutchmen to the number
of those in the settlements on the Pomeroon, which had
by this time spread to the neighbouring small river Moroo-
ca; and, once more, in the following year “a great colony
of Dutch and of Jews, driven off from Brazil by the
Portuguese, settled there, and, being experienced plan-
ters, that soon grew a flourishing colony.* ”
It is as well here to try to realize the relative
position of the three centres of Dutch population by
that time established in Guiana, on the Pomeroon, the
Essequibo and the Berbice. Each stood, as it were, in
a clearing in a land otherwise everywhere covered with
dense forest down to the edge of the water. Between
these clearings there was no road and no means of com-
munication except by water. Between them laya dense
trackless forest, inhabited only by Indians. Gradually,
however, in spite of this isolation, the settlers on the
Esssequibo on the one side, and on the Berbice on
the other began to extend their cultivation towards the
then hardly known Demerara river, which lies between the
two. The Demerara, a river of large size was known, but so
little was it regarded that when, at as late atime as 1672,
the boundary between the two settlements of Essequibo
and Berbice was defined, not the Demerara, but the small
river Abary, probably because of the insignificant settle-
ment which, as has been mentioned, had existed for a
very brief time on it, was selected for the purpose.
It is time to turn to the history of the efforts
of the English to colonize Guiana. The first serious
attempt was made in 1604, or twenty years after the
* Sloane M.S. ‘ Description of Guiana.’
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 65
Dutch had succeeded in gaining a footing, when one
Captain CHARLES LEIGH with fifty Englishmen arrived
in the ship “Olive Plant” at the mouth of the river
Wyapoca (now called the Oyapocko), a river somewhat to
the east of the Cayenne, and there formed a settlement,
to which he gave the name of Caroleigh. By the ship
which had brought him he sent a letter to the Privy
Council in England, in which, after announcing his safe
arrival, he told that the Indians of the district had received
him kindly and urged him to stay among them, that he
had determined to accept this invitation, and that there-
fore, having kept forty of his men with him, he now sent
the other ten back to England, together with four Indian
chiefs as pledges; and he finished with a petition for
the King’s protection both to himself and to all such as
might be willing to join him.* Having thus written
he waited patiently for reinforcements and stores from
England ; but these supplies, which left the Thames in
May of 1605, never reached LEIGH. After enduring
very great hardships for some four years, during which
LEIGH himself and many of the others died, the sur-
viving settlers, apparently fifteen in number, finally took
passage in a passing Dutch vessel and abandoned
the place.
Soon after this the English began to grow anxious
lest some other nation, and especially the Spanish, should
forestall them in obtaining possession of the unoccupied
land of Guiana. Urging the value of Guiana and con-
firming this fear of Spain, Sir THOMAS ROWE, writing to
Lord SALISBURY from Trinidad on the 28th February,
* Calendar of State Papers. Col. Series. Vol. i. p. 5.
I
66 TIMEHRI.
1611, after speaking of himself as having seen
more of the country from the river Amazon to the
Orinoco than any Englishman alive, seeing that he
had passed along the ‘wild coast’ and _ reached
Port d’Espagne, alludes significantly to the design of
the King of Spain ‘to plant Orinoco’, but he added,
that, as it seemed to him, the military power of Spain
was of little account and that their designs ‘ all will be
turned to smoke.’* Whether in consequence of this re-
port by ROWE or not, the first royal English grant
of Guiana was made soon afterwards, on the zoth August
1613; it was to ROBERT HARCOURT, Sir THOMAS CHAL-
LONER and JOHN RAVENSON and to the heirs of HAR-
COURT, ‘‘of all that part of Guiana on the continent of
America between the Rivers Amazon and Dollesquebe.”’
The limits of the tract granted were, therefore, roughly
such as would avoid encroaching on that part of Guiana
which was at that time occupied by the Dutch. This
ROBERT HARCOURT had reached Guiana in 1608, and
formed a settlement on the Wyapoco, near the spot
where LEIGH had failed a few years before.
The next enterprise of importance was that first under-
taken by Captain ROGER NORTH, a brother of Lord
DuDLEY NoRTH, in 1650. Among the State Papers,
exist documents in the handwriting of NORTH himself
in which he pleads, that, he having informed the King that
year of His Majesty’s right to Guiana, the King had
granted to him and to all who would engage in an
adventure to that country a patent and certain privilege ;
that an expedition had been eagerly prepared for the
* Calendar of State Papers. Col. Series, Vol. 1. p. 11.
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 67
purpose ; but that, the Spaniards, and of them especially
their ambassador GONDAMAR, trying by every means to
stop the undertaking and falsely affirming that the King
of Spain already held those countries, the King had
yielded to these clamours and had sent sudden orders to
suspend the expedition, even while it lay at Plymouth
- ready to put to sea. The writer continues that, in this
difficulty, the Duke of Richmond and others having assured
him that ‘the world expected he should go without
bidding,’ he, NORTH, had put to sea.* GONDAMAR,
enraged at this, induced the most timid of kings to issue
a proclamation on the 15th of May against NORTH and
his companions, in which he declared “his utter mislike
of their rash and foolish attempt, revoking any commission
they may pretend to hold from his Majesty, and com-
manding their immediate return and surrender, or their
seizure by any vessels that may meet with them.” Such
property as NORTH had in England was also sequestrated
at the demand of the Spanish ambassador. Meanwhile,
NORTH and his companions sailed to Guiana, which
they reached in about seven weeks, then an average
passage. There they left 100 gentlemen and others, many
of whom remained for many years, making use of
thousands of Indians, who ‘were rewarded with glass beads
and such like contemptible stuff’. NORTH himself sailed
back to England, which he reached in December of the
same year, having heard no word of the proclamation
which had been issued against him. He was thrown into
the Tower, but was released within six months, and
before long managed to obtain restoration of his property.
* For the details of this expedition see Calendar of State Papers.
Col. Series. Vol. i. pp. 23, 77, 78
12
68 TiMEHRI.
But NORTH was not yet deterred from his project. In
1623 he submitted to the king further statements of the
advantages of Guiana, of the injustice of the Spanish
claim, and added that the newly formed Dutch West
India Company, though they had not as yet gained foot-
ing to the east of Essequibo, in the district covered by the
English king’s grant, were then designing to send two or
three ships to take possession of that part of the country.
The Dutch expedition to which this referred was
that which in the following year, 1624, did in fact
take possession of the Berbice and there formed the
colony of that name. But NORTH’s petition seems to
have met with no immediate response.
Yet in 1626 the Attorney General of England was
directed to prepare a bill for the incorporation of the
‘Amazon Company’ for the formation of which NORTH
had so long striven. Accordingly a grant was pre-
pared, which, though dated on the roth of May 1625, did
not pass the great seal till the following month, by which
a company was incorporated under the title of ‘the
Governor and Company of Noblemen and Gentlemen
for the planting of Guiana’. * The company consisted of
the Duke of Buckingham, as Governor, and fifty-five other
noblemen and gentlemen, of whom each had subscribed,
some one hundred and fifty, some a hundred, and some
fifty pounds ; and ROGER NORTH himself was appointed
first Deputy Governor.t
Even then the company does not seem to have flour-
ished; for about two years later a petition was presented
to the King to take ‘ the adventure to Guiana’ under his
* Calendar of State Papers. Col. Series. Vol. 1. p. 79, 84.
+ Ibid. p. 85.
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 69
own protection. From the terms of this petition it
would appear that the settlers were much _har-
assed by enemies. The king was prayed to send, and
to maintain at his own charge for four years, 3,000 men,
100 pieces of ordnance, together with ammunition and
a certain number of ships for transport and for the
protection of the settlers ; the probable expense of this
is somewhat oddly estimated ‘at £48,000, or £15,000
teady money’; and the inducement held out was that
after the four years the colony would probably be able
to pay to His Majesty or to his successor a sum of
£50,000 per annum for twenty-one years.* No serious
attention seems to have been paid to this naive petition,
though a warrant exists, also among the State papers,
for sending four small pieces of ordnance (drakes) for
the use of the company.
The next and only other occasions on which the affairs
of the company can be brought prominently into the
light is in 1635, when the King was urged to prevent
certain Dutch who seemed likely to find their way to
Guiana, lest their settlement there should “cause quar-
rel and bloodshed between the two nations;”’ ¢ and in
1638, when one GEORGE GRIFFITH, an English merchant
of Guiana, presented another petition to the king, who
must surely by this time have been weary of the unpro-
fitable business, in which, after expressing mighty fears
that the Dutch were likely to take possession of those
parts and complaining bitterly of the apathy of the old
company, the writer craves that the King will once
* Calendar of State Papers. Col. Series. Vol. i. p. ror.
+ Ibid. p. 218,
70 TIMEHRI.
more interfere.* From that time the company disap-
pears from the story; it may be dismissed with the
remark that it never had any real success.
The next attempts at settlement were made on the
Surinam and some neighbouring rivers, probably in
1643. Aconsiderable number of English families, under
a man named MARSHALL, were sent by the Earl of WAR-
WICK to settle there, to plant tobacco. The head-
quarters of this undertaking was at the old Indian village
of Paramaribo, on the site of the present chief town of
Dutch Guiana. The history of this settlement has never
been satisfactorily traced, but it seems certain that it was
abandoned within a few years after its formation. But
on its site rose a few years later the only settlement
which the English ever really established in Guiana.
Owing especially to the exertions of FRANCIS, Lord
WILLOUGHBY of Parham, who was then stationed in
Barbados, Englishmen began to arrive once more in
the Surinam in considerable numbers in 1650; and in
1652 Lord WILLOUGHBY went himself to his new colony,
to provide for its organization and defence; + and at
this time and for long afterward he spent much labour
and large sums of money on its development. At the
time of this his first visit, according to a contemporary
document, there were already in the colony “ one hundred
and fifty lusty, well-armed men,” { besides many others.
In recompense for his exertions and expenditure Lord
WILLOUGHBY asked for a grant of that part of the
country: and his request was, in 1654, favourably recom-
* Calendar of State Papers. Col, Series, Vol. i. p. 270.
+ Ibid. Vol. v. p. xli.
i Ibid. Vol. i. p. 374.
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 71
mended to the notice of the king by the Council of State,
the members of which informed His Majesty that his
possessions were in all about 350 square leagues in
extent, and extended to the Amocco, at the mouth
of the Orinoco—thus ignoring entirely the perfect
right, both in justice and by possession, of the
Dutcheeto, thei; “own »settlements. Of this tract,
WILLOUGHBY asked for thirty leagues for himself; *
and a warrant was actually prepared, being dated on the gth
of July 1660, by which the district asked was granted,
the condition being the payment of two white horses by
WILLOUGHBY or his heirs when the king or his successors
landed in the country.+ But this grant was strongly
objected to, not only at home by the Committee of
Foreign Plantations, the members of which thought the
tract far too extensive, but also by some at least of the
colonists in Surinam, on the alleged ground of the
unhappiness of their position should they and their fields
be delivered over absolutely as subjects to one who was
himself a subject, of the king. Probably other more
private reasons induced some of the colonists to oppose
Lord WILLOUGHBY. { It is at least certain that there was
some very bitter feeling. Either at this time or perhaps
a few years later, this ill will took a form very serious to
Lord WILLOUGHBY. A certain landed proprietor named
ALLEN, who had been charged with blasphemy but had
cleared himself of the charge, and who even after this
escape ventured to hold ‘strange opinions . . . as
that no subject could be . . Lord Proprietor, because
* Calendar of State Papers. Col. Series. Vol. v. p. xli.
+ Ibid, Vol. i. p. 483.
+ Ibid, Vol. v. p. xli.
42 TIMEHRI.
it doth clip the wings of Monarchy and infringes the
liberty of the subject,’ and who also seems to have
believed that Lord WILLOUGHBY coveted his estates,
attacked his Lordship, cutting off two of his fingers and
wounding him in the head, expecting at the same time
to have slain him; after which strong measures, ALLEN
poisoned himself. Moreover, ‘several people this year
left Surinam, strange jealousies having possessed them,
which broke out into great discontents.”’* However in
spite of all opposition, CHARLES the Second in 1663
granted to Lord WILLOUGHBY jointly with LAURENCE
HYDE, the second son of the Earl of Clarendon, certain
crown rights being reserved, all that part of Guiana then
called Surinam, but which was thenceforth to be called
Willoughby-land, except about 30,000 acres. ¢ The tract
granted was defined as ‘all that part lying westerly one
mile beyond the River Copenaam, and easterly one
mile beyond the River Marawyn, containing from east
to west forty leagues or thereabouts, and extending from
the sea southwards to the heads of those rivers, and
thence by direct line to the South Sea’. It is perhaps
worth noting that, with a curious abuse of language, the
proprietors were especially allowed to fight in case of
invasion by the natives. t
There still exists a letter written from Surinam, in the
same year in which this grant was made, by RENATUS
ENYS to Secretary Sir HENRY BENNET in which particu-
lars are given of the state of the colony. The natives
* SioaneE MS. ‘ Description of Guiana’ (by Major Jon Scott?) in
which, however, the date of the ALLEN incident is put as late as 1665.
+ Calendar of State Papers. Col. Series. Vol. v. p. xli.
¥ Ibid. Vol. v. p. 131.
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 73
were not numerous and were at peace with the English.
The colony was in good order, being nobly upheld by
the power and prudence of those at the helm, who,
though hitherto not commissioned by His Majesty,
expected the immediate arrival of Lord WILLOUGHBY and
‘those bottomed on royal authority.’ There were about
4000 inhabitants. The country began to be populous,
there being new arrivals weekly. The chief commodity
was sugar—‘ better can not be made.’ Negro slaves
were much wanted. And the Barbadians continued, as
before, great enemies and runners down of the colony.
Very soon after this letter was written those ‘bottomed
on royal authority’ must have arrived among the loyal
and the disloyal settlers on the Surinam, bringing
with them news of the long expected official recogni-
tion of those settlements as a colony. ‘Thus closes
the history of English attempts to found colonies in
Guiana.
It is convenient to pause again for a moment, to
re-call to memory the number and nature of the centres
of population then in Guiana. North-westward were the
settlements on the twin rivers Pomeroon and Morooca,
which had no definite and distinct government and can not
therefore be called colonies. Next, to the eastward, was
the colony of Essequibo and, still more to the east, the
colony of Berbice. These places had all been founded
by Dutchmen and were in the possession of Dutchmen.
Again, still more to the east, on the Surinam was the
new colony called Willoughby-land, round the central
town of which were doubtless a few scattered settle-
ments, unimportant and dependent. Lastly, and still
more to the east, there were a few scattered French
K
74 TIMEHRI.
settlers on the Cayenne. That exhausts the list of
Europeans then in Guiana.
No sooner had the English thus obtained standing
ground than they seem to have turned their attention to
harrassing the people of the neighbouring colonies. The
war which at that time raged between the English,
French and Dutch nations in the outer world affected
these same nations in Guiana. In 1664 Lord WIL-
LOUGHBY wrote home regarding the Dutch seizure of
several places in Guiana,—as though these so-called
seizures had not been made before, and with more justi-
fication than, that which the English had made—and
advised that they should be attacked before they grew
too strong; * and in the following year Sir THOMAS
MODDYFORD submitted his proposition for rooting the
Dutch out of Guiana and out of the West Indies gene-
rally.+ Accordingly, in this latter year, Lord WIL-
LOUGHBY set out himself to attack the Dutch in various
places, and sent {| Major JOHN SCOTT with a small fleet
and a regiment of foot “against the Dutch on Tobago,
and at New Zealand, Desse Cuba (Essequibo) and Tim-
beran (?) on the main of Guiana.” § SCOTT in 1666 “ by
the assistance of the Caribbee nation ... burnt and
destroyed the enemy’s towns, forts and goods, and set-
tlements to the value of £160,000 and disbursed for His
Majesty’s service 73,788 ibs of muscovado sugar.”
From a certain state-paper it appears that the settle-
ments taken by SCOTT were those on the Pomeroon and
* Calendar of State Papers. Col. Series. Vol. v. p. 246.
+ Ibid. Vol. v. p. 281.
+ Ibid. Vol. v. p. 355.
§ Ibid. Vol. v. p. 481.
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 75
Essequibo.* ScoTrT left some of his men in possession
of these captured places.t
A few other, unimportant settlements, Dutch and
French, having also been taken in 1665 by the English,
Major Scott, or whoever was the writer of the “ Des-
cription of Guiana’? from which I have so often quoted,
could write at the end of that year—‘ This year the Eng-
lish could boast of the possession of all that part of
Guiana, abutting on the Atlantic Ocean, from Cayan on
the south-east to Oronoque on the north-west, (except a
small colony on the river Berbishees,) which is not less
than six hundred English miles.” And the said colony
of Berbice was even then being attacked; and it sur-
rendered in the beginning of 1666.
As he has figured so largely in the story, it may not be
out of place to state here, by way of parenthesis, that
Lord WILLOUGHBY died about this time; but that his
policy was continued by his successors.
Very soon indeed the Dutch reprisals began. In
February 1667 a Dutch fleet with tooo men, under
Admiral CRYNSENS, appeared before the fort of Surinam.
The Governor, Lieutenant-General WILLIAM ByAM, at
first refused to surrender, but, after a few hours’ fighting,
* SLoaneE M.S. Description of Guiana, and State Papers, Col. Se-
ries, vol. v. p. 448.
+ Calendar of State Papers. Col. Series. Vol. v. p. 355. The names
there given are ‘ Boromeo and Issikebb’. Of course the Editor of that
volume of papers is right in identifying the latter place as Essequibo ;
but I think he is mistaken in supposing that Boromeo means Para-
maribo. The name which is now written Pomeroon appears in papers
of that date in very various forms, among which perhaps the commonest
is Bouroume ; and I cannot but suppose that Boromeo is merely another
variation on this.
K 2
76 TIMEHRI.
being left with but fifty pounds of powder, he was
obliged. Very favourable terms were granted. The
place was to be given over to the Dutch; but all
Englishmen actually in the colony were to retain their
property and enjoy equal rights with the Dutch. Only
the property of absentees was confiscated.* In the
terms of capitulation mention was made of the men
whom Major SCOTT had left to guard the settlements
which he had captured on the Pomeroon and Essequibo.
These had been attacked, had suffered great misery, and
had been much reduced in number. Of them, a certain
Lieutenant EVERARD was in command in Essequibo with
twelve men under him ‘who were all that were left of
our men at Bowrooma and Dissekebe, all the rest perish-
ing for want of supplies’.t They were soon forced to
surrender to the Dutch, who then possessed exactly
that same Guiana of the possession of which the English
had been able to boast but a few months earlier.
But the tide turned once more. In the August follow-
ing the February in which the Dutch had captured Suri-
nam, the English, under Sir JOHN HARMAN and Lieu-
tenant General HENRY WILLOUGHBY, appeared before
the French settlement, at Cayenne, which, though it was
very gallantly defended, was soon taken and sacked.
“The forts and strong buildings were demolished, the
stock of Cayenne fully destroyed, . . . and more
plunder, consisting of negroes, sugar, coppers, stills,
mills, cattle and horses, carried away than will ever be
known.” {| Some of the people were carried away pri-
* Calendar of State Papers. Col. Series, Vol. v. p. 448.
+ Ibid. Vol. v. p. 449.
+ Ibid. Vol. v. p. 487.
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 77
soners, the rest were left, “seized of the island, but with
little to defend themselves with against the natives, as
the French have complained since.”
An incident in the behaviour of the English in Cayenne
on this occasion throws light both upon the absence of
friendly feeling between the Indians and the French of
that district and upon the high value of those much
desired commodities, negro slaves, in the West Indies
in those days. An Indian chief came to HENRY WIL-
LOUGHBY and offered his assistance and that of his
tribe, in re-capturing and delivering to the English such
negroes as had managed to escape in the confusion into
the surrounding forest, an offer which, because of the
value of the prize, was eagerly accepted.*
Having disposed of their booty, the English sailed in
October from Cayenne and appeared before Surinam,
which was at the time almost undefended, the fleet by
which it had been captured in the beginning of the year
being at the time engaged in an expedition against
Tobago. The place was soon compelled to surrender
once more to the English commanders, who leaving a
sufficient guard in it, then sailed to Barbados.
HENRY WILLOUGHBY, who had been in joint command
of the fleet which thus re-took Surinam and who seems
to have acted as agent for WILLIAM, heir of FRANCIS,
Lord WILLOUGHBY, and to that place, returned there
with the intention, which he partly carried out of remoy-
ing the slaves, and the movable and valuable part of the
colony generally, to Antigua. Apparently the owner
had by this time found that his possession of Surinam
was so insecure that he must abandon all hope of any
* SLOANE M.S. Description of Guiana.
78 TIMEHRI.
profit from it. Nor were his fears without foundation ;
for in that same year, by the Treaty of Breda, Surinam
was awarded to the Dutch.
Then came to pass that evil which had been foreseen
by those who objected to the absolute grant of Surinam
to a subject. For now, His Majesty at home might
make what treaties he pleased, WILLIAM, Lord WIL-
LOUGHBY, was not going to give up his South Anerican
possessions without a struggle. He resisted and re-
tarded the delivery of the colony to the Dutch by every.
means in his power: among others by commissioning
a certain Major NEEDHAM to attack the ‘Arwacas’ In-
dians (i.e. the Arawaks) who were the great allies of the
Dutch, as the Caribs were of the English. The Dutch
authorities in Europe laid bitter complaint against WIL-
LOUGHBY before the English King. At last CHARLES the
Second wrote to his refractory subject expressing his sur-
prise and anger at his conduct and ordering the immediate
delivery of Surinam in accordance with the articles of
the Treaty of Breda. Lord WILLOUGHBY and his defend-
ers answered with many excuses; and especially, as re-
gards NEEDHAM’S attacks on the Arawaks, they asserted
that ‘this nation is one of the most powerful on the
Coast of Guiana, mortal enemies to the Caribs, who were
and still are our firm friends, and that during the war
they committed horried cruelties against the English.” *
However at last WILLOUGHBY yielded ; and the English
remarked enviously that ‘the Dutch now seem to lay
claim to the whole main, having gotten a part from the
English’. In truth, they had a right to do so.
* Calendar of State Papers. Col. Series, Vol. v. p. 487.
y Ibid. Vol. v. p. 598.
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 79
After the peace of Breda had thus been carried into
effect, the Dutch, being long left to themselves in Gui-
ana, busied themselves in developing the colonies which
already existed there. Only one new one was founded ;
but that one has since proved itself the first of them all.
The history of its formation is briefly this. It has
been said that the River Demerara lay unused, and
almost unknown, between the Essequibo and Berbice
long after these two rivers had been settled and
had given their names to colonies. Things remained
somewhat in this condition till about 1739, by which
time cultivation, spreading from Berbice on the one
side and Essequibo on the other, had gradually
approached the Demerara. By that time there was
a settlement, an offset from Berbice, on the
Mahaicony to the east of the Demerara; and there
were some few plantations, offsets from Essequibo, on
what is now called the west coast of Demerara.
In 1745 an elaborate plan was drawn up and ac-
cepted for the cultivation of the intermediate lands,
at the mouth of the Demerara. From the plan it is evi-
dent that it was Essequibo, and not Berbice, which even-
tually gave birth to Demerara. It was stipulated that
the people of the mother colony should be allowed for ten
years to remove to the Demerara ; but those who availed
themselves of this permission were strictly enjoined to
obey the authority of Essequibo. It was not till 1765 that
Demerary obtained a separate Governor. This may, there-
fore, be considered the date of the separate existence of
Demerara. There were at the time about 130 estates,
chiefly planted with coffee, and sugar, in cultivation. The
government was at first carried on from Borselen, an
80 TIMEHRI.
island some twenty miles up the river; but it was removed
in 1775 to the newly-built town of Stabroek, at the
mouth of the river, the same which is now known as
Georgetown.
Thus the history of the foundation of each of the
colonies of Guiana which are now, or ever were, in the
hand of the English has been told.
(To be continued.)
The Lime Industry in Dominica.
By H. A. Alford Nicholls, M.D., Corresponding Member of the New York
Academy of Sciences, and of the Chamber of Agriculture of Basseterre,
Guadeloupe.
RHE lime-tree belongs to the natural order
i Aurantiacee and to the genus Citrus, and it is
I now known to botanists by the name of Citrus
limetta given to it by RISsso in his celebrated monograph
on the orange family. Like many other plants, it has
been described under various names, the principal of
which are Citrus acitda, Citrus medica acida, and
Citrus silvestris.
The question as to the right of the orange, lemon,
lime, citron, shaddock, and forbidden fruit to be con-
sidered specific types of the genus Cztrus, is one that
has given rise to some controversy amongst botanists.
Some consider that the lime, the lemon, and the bergamot
orange are merely varieties of the citron (Citrus medica),
whilst others, amongst whom are the leading Indian
botanists, believe the lime to be a distinct species; and
Dr. ROXBURGH, in the Hortus Bengalensis, describes it
as such, under the name of Citrus acida.
The orange, the lime, the citron, and their various
varieties were cultivated from the earliest times; and
although it is difficult to determine the parts of the world
from whence they first came, it is row generally believed
by botanists that they are all of Asiatic origin; indeed, at
the present time, they are found wild in the valleys of
Nepaul. From India they were carried eastward to
L
82 TIMEBRI.
China, and westward to Arabia and Media, whence
they were introduced into Italy and the north of Africa
soon after the Christian era. The citron and the lime
were known to the Romans, and are well described
by PLINY in chapter Il. of his 13th Book. As an inter-
esting fact, it may here be mentioned that the orange was
not carried into Italy until a thousand years afterwards.
The lime was introduced into England in 1648 ; but it was
established in the West Indies before that date, having
probably been brought over by the Spaniards in some of
their earlier voyages. It at once took to soil and cli-
mate, and grew more luxuriantly than in its own habitat;
and now, running far ahead of its allied types, it has
escaped from cultivation and become wild in Central
America, Jamaica, and other American countries.
The date of the introduction of the lime into Dominica
is unrecorded; but it was most probably brought hither by
the early French settlers from Martinique who established
themselves in the south part of the island about 1691,
notwithstanding the fact that the English and French had
engaged by treaty to leave the land to the undisturbed
possession of the native Caribs. The tree must have
spread rapidly however ; for exactly a century afterwards
—namely in 1791—ATWOOD, the historian of Dominica
writes as follows :—‘ The lemon and the lime trees bear
also very aromatic scenting blossoms ; and the fruit of
both is in great abundance, large, and of excellent
quality. Of these, the latter especially, great quantities
are often sent in barrels to England and America; the
neighbouring English islands are likewise often sup-
plied with them from this country, especially those of
Antigua and Barbados”. This statement is most inter-
THE LIME INDUSTRY IN DOMINICA. 83
esting; for it is the earliest record of an export fruit trade
in the West Indies, and it shows that the exportation of
limes from Montserrat and Jamaica is not a new, but
merely the revival of an old Dominica, industry.
Notwithstanding the luxuriance of growth and easy
propagation of the lime-tree, it was cultivated to a slight
extent only, for the sake of its fruit, which possesses
antiscorbutic properties ; and, until the late Dr. IMRAY
demonstrated the fact by successful experiment, no one
would have imagined that the lime-tree was destined to
help to restore the prosperity of a ‘‘ decaying sugar
island’, by furnishing to commerce the raw material
from which to manufacture citric acid, a chemical sub-
stance extensively used in the arts and manufactures.
To Dr. IMRAY belongs the honour of the origination of
this new cultivation ; but I must mention that soon after
this public benefactor had established the lime groves on
the Batalze estate in Dominica, the Messrs. STURGE—
quite independently and without any knowledge of Dr.
IMRAY’S experiments—set to work to establish similar
cultivation in Montserrat.
The lime-tree is so well known to the readers of
Timehri that any minute description of its characteristics
is unnecessary in this article. I may mention, however,
as bearing on its cultivation, that its mode of growth
and appearance is rather that of a large shrub than
a tree. It has many diffused branches, set with sharp
and stout spines at the bases of the leafstalks; and
the main limbs start from, or near the ground. In
Dominica it commonly attains a height of 25 feet or
even more; and such a tree may cover a space equal to
about 400 square feet. The tree blossoms all the year
L2
84 TIMEHRI.
round, except in very dry weather, and every heavy
shower of rain is invariably followed by the putting forth
of new flower buds. The fruit, when ripe, is of a brilliant
yellow colour, and it is borne in great profusion on the
new wood of the younger branches, either singly, or in
bunches of from three to eight or even more ; indeed, I
have often counted as many as fourteen large fruits on
a single bunch on some of my trees at St. Aroment.
The slender branches are sometimes so heavily laden
that the weight of the fruit bears them down to the
ground ; and, in the height of the crop season, men have
to be sent round the fields to prop the branches with
poles and forked sticks; for unless this be done, these
being unable to sustain their burden of fruit, may be
torn off from the main stems.
The principal flowering commences in March or April,
and the full crop begins in June and continues to Decem-
ber. I have made some calculations from my last two
years crop on the S¢. Aroment estate, for the figures so
obtained will give a better idea of the return in the vari-
ous months than any general statements. Ifthe crop of
an estate be taken at a thousand barrels of limes in the
year, the yield, according to my calculations, would be
as follows for the various months —
Barrels, Barrels.
January sk 16 July ... 500 227
February oc 5 August er 221
March 500 nil September dae 165
April ... 200 2 October se 145
May ... bot 3 November S00 III
June ... wd 30 December oe 75
It is thus seen that the crop commences in June,
reaches its maximum in July, and gradually ceases in
THE Lime INDUSTRY IN DOMINICA. . 85
January, although a few barrels may be gathered after-
wards.
Like all plants of the orange family, limes delight in
a rich soil, and in Dominica they grow best and fastest in
the valleys near the sea coast, where there is a deep
black soil, composed partly of alluvial deposits and partly
of decomposed volcanic rocks. In these situations the
lime-trees are very large and plentiful, and the juice is of
greater density, and it contains a larger proportion of
citricacid. The plant thrives well, however, in other
localities; for some of the principal lime-estates are es-
tablished on the hills, at elevations ranging from 300 to
800 feet above the sea. In these places the soil varies,
being clayey in some and rockey in others; indeed, I have
seen fine trees laden with fruit growing on Jand which
consists of a substratum of rocks covered with a layer of
earth no more than two feet in thickness. The rocky
and apparently barren landon some parts of the leeward
coasts of Dominica is well adapted for lime cultivation ;
for such is the hardy nature of the tree that it will thrive
in situations where no other cultivation can be attempted.
But it must be said that on such lands there is difficulty
in establishing the trees, and they take much longer to
come into bearing.
In making a lime plantation, the first consideration is to
prepare nurseries for seedling plants; and for this purpose
narrow beds may be laid out in a situation sheltered from
the afternoon sun. The seeds should be planted fresh
from the fruit; and, if the Jand be dry, frequent watering
will be found necessary, for unless this be done many
of the infant plants will be lost. :
The system of planting about a dozen seeds out in the
86 TIMEHRI.
fields in each of the places when the plants are to remain
is frequently adopted, and sometimes with great success ;
but the seedlings require considerable care, as they are
liable to be choked by fast-growing weeds. When they
become about ten inches high, all but the strongest plant
must be removed; and some of those taken up will be
useful for supplying the vacant holes. Whether the seeds
be sown in nurseries or in the fields, precautions must be
taken to preserve them from rats; for these animals—the
natural enemies of the West Indian planter—appear to
consider germinating lime seeds as a delicacy that rewards
the labour of digging to procure. Quite recently I
planted a large lime nursery, and in a few days the rats
had devoured the greater portion of the seeds.
The lime-tree is a fast grower and, as the seeds readily
germinate, the young plants need not to be kept in the
beds longer than a year. No hardening off is necessary ;
the seedlings may be taken out of the nurseries and
planted in the places prepared for them, with but little
danger of failure, if the weather be wet and ordinary
care be observed in the removal. If the roots are broken
it is wise to trim these off with a sharp pruning knife;
and, in order to restore the balance between those parts
of the plant above and below the ground, it is well to
cut back the stem or to remove the greater number of the
leaves.
The usual distances at which lime-trees are planted in
Dominica varies from ro to 18 feet, and this gives an
average distance of 14 feet between each plant and
between the rows; but it is a most unsafe proceeding to
adopt the same distances of planting for all lands. On
steep hill-sides 10 feet will not be too close, whilst on
THE LIME INDUSTRY IN DOMINICA. 87
rich “ bottom lands” 18 feet, if anything, will be too
near. In the latter situations the best plan is to plant
the limes 20 feet apart, and to allow the same distance
between the rows; and in ten or twelve years the ground
will be entirely covered.
After the young lime-trees are planted out they must
be kept clear of weeds, but care should be observed that
the weeders do not injure the superficial roots. If low
pasture grass can be established on the plantation so
much the better; for it will prevent the parching of the
soil in dry weather and the washing of it in heavy rains ;
besides which, the pasture will prove useful in raising
cattle, as was done by the late Dr. IMRAY at Batalie,
the pioneer lime-estate in the West Indies. No goats or
sheep should be allowed on the plantation, as they fre-
quently destroy the lime-trees by stripping off the young
bark, of which they appear to be extremely fond. If it
be impracticable to establish a carpet of low grass on
the land, the young-plants to their advantage may be
mulched with cane-trash or with dead weeds during the
dry season.
The trees once established will be found to grow ra-
pidly, anda small crop may be looked for in three years
after the seedling plants are put out ; and in five years
the plantation will be in full bearing.
Beyond removing the dead branches and those that
lie too close to the ground, no pruning is_ necessary ;
indeed, the cultivation of the lime-tree is simplicity itself,
for the more the tree is left to its natural growth the bet-
ter will be the results.
The gathering in of the crops is done in Dominica by
women and children, who are paid according to the num-
88 TIMEHRI.
ber of barrels of fruit they bring to the works, an ordi-
nary flour barrel being the measure usually employed.
The prices vary, according to the scarcity of the fruit
and the distance of carriage, from three-pence to six-
pence a barrel. The limes are not picked from the trees,
but allowed to fall to the ground; for the riper the fruit
the greater will be the return of juice. Care is usually
taken to prevent the lime gatherers from shaking and
beating the trees—as they are disposed to do when the
the limes on the ground are not over plentiful ; for the
crop would then be lessened, by many flowers and much
young fruit being thrown down. The lime gatherers are
provided with roughly made wooden rakes wherewith
they jerk the limes from under the trees, as, on account of
the prickles, it is dangerous work to grope in amongst
the branches.
The fruit having been brought to the works and mea-
sured in the presence of the overseer, the next thing is to
obtain the juice by the simple process of crushing the
limes between the rollers of a mill. On some estates the
old cane-mills have been utilized; and by nice adjust-
ment these mills can be arranged so as to extract
all the juice. I have seen lime-skins thrown from
one of these mills so dry, that they left no moisture on a
board after having been pressed down upon it firmly
with the foot. A small space is usually left between
the first and second rollers in order that the lime may
be burst and a portion of the juice allowed to pass off
with the seeds; the second and third rollers are then
approximated so closely that the burst lime is deprived
of all its juice and most of its oil. The next operation is
to strain the juice ; which is done by pressing it through
THE LIME INDUSTRY IN DOMINICA. | 89
copper sieves with the mesh sufficiently large to allow
the juice and pulp to pass and to retain the seeds. Iron
or brass sieves will not do, for the citric acid in the juice
soon destroys them. The chemical affinity between the
iron and citric acid is evidenced by the rapid way in
which the iron rollers of the mills are “‘eaten away’’—or
converted into citrate of iron, to write more correctly. To
obviate the loss caused by this decomposition of the
citric acid, many lime-planters have mills with wooden
rollers covered with sheets of perforated copper.
On the principal lime-estates the mills are run by
water power, on others with cattle gear, and on some
the limes are “ground” through mills with wooden
copper-covered rollers, worked by hand power. At
St. Aroment I have such a mill as that last mentioned.
It is furnished with two very heavy fly-wheels, and it
is turned by four men. With this mill it is possible
to “grind” a barrel of limes in a minute and a half, and
it is quite capable of taking off a crop of 5000 barrels in
a year.
With many of the power mills, and with all the hand
ones, a certain proportion of juice is left in the skins.
This waste varies from 5 to 20 fer cent. on the amount
of juice capable of being extracted, which is about eight
imperial gallons for each Larrel of fruit. To prevent
this loss I have the skins passed through a small cider
press, and by this means all waste is obviated.
Although eight gallons of juice is obtainable from a
barrel of limes, an average of seven gallons is the
amount usually extracted on the Dominica estates,
the loss of 123 per cent. being due to defective machinery.
At present the planters appear to be well satisfied with
M
go TIMEHRI.
this return, but when the price of concentrated lime
juice falls, as it most likely will, endeavours will be
made to prevent so large a loss.
The lime juice may be shipped either raw or
concentrated ; but most of that exported from Dominica
is concentrated, and used in England and America for
the sole purpose of making citric acid. Raw lime
juice to be of value must be carefully strained, and
put in packages when quite fresh; for otherwise it will
deteriorate greatly. If these precautions be adopted,
the juice will remain in excellent condition for a consi-
derable time; but should it be necessary to keep it for
long periods all fermentation may be prevented by add-
ing half an ounce of salicylic acid to every 50 gallons of
the raw juice.
In Dominica the lime juice is concentrated in shallow
copper or enamelled iron pans, of capacities varying from
40 to 120 gallons. These pans are “hung” in the same
way as the iron taches used in the manufacture of mus-
covado sugar; and on most of the estates the old sugar
works have been pressed into the service.
The degree of concentration usually followed is 12 to
I, six puncheons of raw juice being boiled down until
they are reduced to 54 gallons of concentrated, or to
about enough to fill a beer hogshead, which is the pack-—
age mostly used for shipping the juice. This concentra-
tion I believe to be too high; for, as the bulk becomes
reduced, the thick juice adheres to the sides of the boilers,
and becomes charred (or carbonised) by the heat of the
fires. Such high concentration, however, has several ad-
vantages, amongst which may be mentioned smaller
bulk, greater portability, and therefore, decreased ex-
THE LIME INDUSTRY IN DOMINICA. | g!
pense of packages and freight; but, on the other hand,
in addition to the destruction of some of the acid there
are the extra outlays on fuel, on labour in boiling, &c.,
and in the wear and tear of the boiler and works.
High concentration is liked in the American markets,
but not cared for in the English; in fact the slight
difference in London in the value of concentrated Sicilian
lemon juice and concentrated Dominica lime juice—to
the detriment of the latter—is, I am informed, entirely
due to the high concentration of the latter. On my own
estate [have adopted two forms of concentration, namely
8 to 1 and 6 to 1, with the following results :—-My
American agents inform me that 8 to 1 is too low, and
my London agents say that 6 to 1 is rather too high a
degree. The Sicilian lemon juice rules the price of the
London market ; and this is concentrated to such a de-
gree as to give about 64 ounces of citric acid to the gallon
of juice. My London correspondents, therefore, advise
me to obtain a similar standard with the lime juice.
From experiments conducted at St. Aroment, and from
London analyses, I have been able to elicit the following
facts:—When 6 gallons of raw lime juice are boiled to
one gallon the resulting juice, at 60° F., will register 60° by
the citrometer, and will contain 75 ounces of citric acid.
But when similar juice is concentrated 8 to 1 the citro-
meter, at the same temperature, will register 71°, and
there will be only go ounces of citric acid to every gallon.
These figures indicate that 10 per cent. of the acid is
lost by the higher concentration.
As a rule, better returns are realised for Dominica
concentrated juice in America than in England, although
the ruling prices are about the same in both markets,
M 2
92 TIMEHRI.
This discrepancy, however, is due chiefly to the number
of expenses usually charged in London. I cannot say
that I have found much difference in the returns, for the
analysis of my juice in England invariably shows more
favourable results than in America; and, in this way,
the extra expenses incurred by shipping ‘‘home”’ are
neutralised.
In boiling down the lime juice considerable expense
is occasioned by cutting and carrying the wood, and,
where this is unobtainable, by the purchase of “ patent
fuel.” I find that it takes two cords of wood to reduce
500 gallons of raw juice to 50 gallons of concentrated.
The consumption of fuel of course depends greatly upon
the construction of the furnaces &c.; but it may be said
roundly that two cords of wood are required for every
hogshead of concentrated juice; and to procure this
wood is often a serious matter. .
Anyone commencing to establish a lime plantation
should give serious thought as to where the fuel for
boiling down the juice is to come from; and I fear that
this important matter has not been sufficiently con-
sidered by our planters. It seems to have been forgotten
that the wood should be cropped in the same way as
the limes; and that if woodlands are absolutely cleared,
no fuel can be expected for several years afterwards,
and then only in small quantities. The trees should not
be cut down, with an almost certainty of losing them
altogether ; a portion of the branches should be removed
every year, and then a never failing supply of wood will
be kept up; and, ina series of years, it will be found
that the wood-land will give an amount of fuel far in
excess of what would be obtained by making a clean
THE LIME INDUSTRY IN DOMINICA. -: 93
sweep of everything, as is usually done in Dominica.
On commencing to establish a lime plantation the
question of fuel should be one of the first considerations.
Ifno woods exist on the land, or if they be of insufficient
quantity, then indigenous fast growing trees suitable for
fuel ought to be planted simultaneously with the limes ;
and the cultivation of wood for fuel should go hand in hand
with the cultivation of the limes. As far as I know, the
idea is a novel one, but I am satisfied that it will com-
mend itself to those planters who are accustomed to look
a few years ahead. The cost of establishing woods and
coppices on odd corners of an estate will be compara-
tively trifling, and it will be returned over and over
again in the saving effected in the purchase of fuel; be-
sides which, on dry, cleared estates, to which these re-
marks are intended to apply, the planting of trees will
act beneficially, by retaining moisture in the soil and
thus rendering the air more humid.
A good system, where practicable, would be to sepa-
rate the lime fields by wide belts of various kinds of trees;
for a large unbroken stretch of one kind of cultivation
is, | believe, a mistake. Where blights, terrible in their
ravages, and in their results to agricultural interests,
have appeared, it has been where man setting aside the
lesson taught by nature, of a diversity of vegetable forms
growing on the same land, has covered the face of a
country with one kind of plant life. In such cases history
shows that the blight, be it vegetable or animal, comes,
and finding everything peculiarly suited to its well-being,
it propagates itself with astonishing rapidity, and then
disastrous results follow. Fortunately no serious blight
has attacked our lime groves; but, judging by analogy, a
94 TIMEHRI.
blight must come sooner or later, and now-a-days when
science and scientific thought are brought to bear on all
cultivation every precaution must be taken against pos-
sible difficulties.
Besides the lime juice a second product, essential oil,
is obtainable from the limes. This oil is made in Mont-
serrat and on several of the Dominica lime estates.
There are two kinds of essential oil of limes, namely,
the hand-made and the distilled. The hand-made oil is,
of course, the most valuable, as its perfume is unaffected
by the heat necessary in distillation. It is manufactured
In several ways, the principal one being by the écuedle,
which is a round copper shallow pan having a receptacle
for the oil at its lowest part, and studded on its concavity
by strong blunt spikes. The women, who generally make
this oil, take the finest fruit and roll it gently but quickly
around the inside of the écue/le; the spikes prick the
vittz or oil-sacs, whereupon the oil, running down the
spikes and the concavity of the pan, collects in the reser-
voir at the lowest part. Sometimes the selected limes
are put into buckets of water and taken thence by
the women ; for the water assists in carrying off the oil
which easily separates afterwards. The oil is filtered
through specially prepared blotting paper, then poured
into clean clear glass bottles, in which the impurities are
allowed to settle. The strong, clear and fragrant oil is
then separated from the water and impurities, by means
of a glass funnel with a stop-cock; and it is as pure as
any essential oil can be.
Most of the oil exported from Dominica is manufac-
tured by simple distillation from the lime juice which
leaves the mill. It is of an inferior quality, and was
THE LIME INDUSTRY IN DOMINICA. - 95
formerly used solely for adulterating the essential oil of
lemons; but, lately, it has been employed for scent-
ing soaps and in the manufacture of the common
essences and perfumes, and, consequently, its price has
risen considerably.
A fine and valuable product might be obtained by
grating off the outer rind of the lime, and mixing the
yellow substance thus obtained with water, and then ex-
tracting the oil by steam distillation. Unquestionably
such an oil would command a high price in the markets ;
but the expense of a steam still is sufficient to deter all
but our leading planters from giving serious considera-
tion to the matter.
A good oil may also be obtained by expression of the
substances rasped off the rind. This yellow pulp must be
put into hard bags, and the oil forced out by high pressure
exerted by a powerful press. A small ‘‘ Boomer press’’,
which exerts, I believe, a pressure of about three tons,
would be admirably suited to such work. ‘The expressed
oil is inferior to that made by ‘“‘riming’”’, as the hand
process is called, but it is far superior to that distilled
from the juice.
Having described briefly the cultivation of the lime,
and the preparation of the concentrated juice and
essential oil, I must now say a few words on the yield
from a plantation, and the annual profits likely to be
realised.
- A barrel of fruit may safely be reckoned upon as the
average yield from each tree on a plantation, and
if 200 trees be taken as the number to the acre,
and seven gallons of juice be obtained from each
barrel, the total of 1,400 gallons of raw juice per acre
96 TIMEHRI.
per annum is arrived at. This I think is a safe estimate,
although it must be mentioned that a larger yield may
often be reckoned upon. If the raw juice be concen-
trated 12 to 1, about 116 gallons, or alittle more than
two hogsheads, will result; and these should bring in
the English or American markets, at the present prices,
about £20 each. It will thus be seen that about £45 per
acre for the juice may be calculated on as the minimum
return, when the lime trees are in full bearing; and, if
essential oil be distilled from the juice, another £5 may
be added, which brings the gross return per acre to £50
a year.
The expense of the estates including cultivation, manu-
facture, and all other items, is found to be in Dominica,
about £10 per acre; and this, deducted from the gross
return, leaves £30 a year clear profit for each acre under
fully grown limes. Larger sums are made on well-
managed estates, and the cultivation of limes in Domi-
nica is found to be very profitable ; indeed, it may be said
with justice, that it has done much to bring back pros-
perity to an island which, when dependent on its sugar
cultivation, was fast decaying in wealth and importance.
Having drawn so bright a picture of this new West
Indian industry, some of my readers may be inclined
to embark in its prosecution ; but to such I would sound
a note of warning. It can scarcely be expected that the
present price of lime juice will be kept up, for the de-
mand is limited and the cultivation is increasing. It
may be predicted, therefore, that the price of concentra-
ted lime juice will gradually fall, unless new uses be
found for citric acid. The enlightened lime planters in
Dominica foresee this fall, and are preparing for. it
THE Lime INDUSTRY IN DOMINICA. 97
by raising plantations of cacao by the side of their
lime groves, and by directing attention to the cultivation
of Liberian coffee, oranges, spices, ceara rubber, &c. The
rich and well-watered soil of Dominica is capable of pro-
ducing so many varieties of tropical produce, that, in a
few years, no fears need be entertained of the island’s
future, even if the lime cultivation become unremunera
tive ; but, that such may never be the case will I think
be the wish of those who know anything of this neglected
“land of the mountain and the flood”, which is now
slowly, but surely, becoming prosperous by the industry
and intelligence of its few inhabitants.
Model Settlers,—A lesson in the ‘ Small
Industries.’
By_G. S. Fenman, F.L.S., Government Botanist of British Guiana.
¥|O judge from the indefinite and fruitless discus-
sion which occasionally takes place on the
subject, there appears to be no local question so
difficult of satisfactory solution as that the subject of
which is known here under the name of the ‘“ small
industries.’ How are these to be established ; and how
are men with moderate means, or perhaps men of no
means, immigrants and others, possessing only a spirit
of industry, to take a place in the community as contri-
butors to the wealth of the land by the surplus products
of their labour? This colony, taking the van of the
West Indies, has attained its present position, of late
years, by a single great industry—an industry, as here
conducted, requiring large capital for its successful
working ; and the problem confronts men who take a
broad view of what is best for the permanent welfare of
the country, how lesser industries may be established, so
that, in their pursuit, a kind of yeomanry class be formed,
such as exists, and is the strength, of almost every well-
founded state. As a rule, at present such a class
of agricultural population may be said hardly to exist,
so few are the representatives of it. From the more pros-
perous Portuguese, Chinese and other provision cultiva-
tors, coffee and cocoa growers, graziers and woodcutters,
such a class may, however, in the future grow up. But
my object is not to discuss the question in its broad as-
MODEL SETTLERS. 99
pect, but, only, to point to an instance of successful
colonization worth imitating, which contains a valuable
lesson for the general working community that de-
serves to be widely known. The native peasantry, it is
acknowledged, have withdrawn very largely from the
sugar industry, and have taken to nothing else instead.
Indeed, the village communities have become a bye-word
in the country, and the despair of every one, as to their im-
provement. This is apparent ; but a remedy for it is not
so generally obvious. Light may be thrown on the issue
by the condition of the Chinese settlers on the Cam-
mooni Creek, whom I recently visited.
The existence of a thriving community of Chinese
near the mouth of Cammooni Creek on the Demerara
river is well known; very few are however acquainted
with what they are doing. Their occupation is di-
vided between agriculture, burning charcoal, cutting
wallaba posts, staves and shingles, and raising cattle,
pigs, poultry and garden produce. The settlement strag-
gles along the creek for several miles. At intervals on
the banks the dwellings and store houses occur; and a
road for foot traffic, well kept up, extends along the
front, affording communication from dwelling to dwell-
ing. This is intersected at short intervals by the
draining trenches from the cultivation, which lies aback ;
and the trenches are bridged by logs, which are
usually squared or sawn into thick planks, to afford
good footing—not a characteristic feature of such bridges
in this colony. To give an idea of their size, I may men-
tion that at the time of our visit, one of the draining
trenches was in course of being dug. It was twenty-four
feet wide at the top, narrowing gradually to the base by
N 2
100 TIMEHRI.
a series Of shelf-like parapets. The depth appeared to
be about fourteen feet. Most of the trenches near this
were nearly as large. On the banks of the trenches are
good foot walks, clean and well formed, leading to the
cultivation. The latter is of the most diversified char-
acter as regards subjects ; but for system and complete-
ness, admitting its limited character, is second only to the
cane cultivation of the colony. Cassava, sweet potatoes,
tannias, plantains, bananas and rice are the principal sub-
jects, and are all largely grown. ‘The ground is laid out
in large plots, and thrown up into narrow beds or ridges.
To get the surface sufficiently high and dry, the
intervening drains are made nearly as wide as
the beds. In their native country, these drains would be
turned to account and put under rice, but here they leave
them open. Being subsoil, it is probably sour, and, with
so much land at command, not worth cultivating. The
system and neatness and general absence of weeds, re-
minded us at first sight of a London market-garden.
Rice is grown on the ground when first cleared of forest,
before it is drained for other crops. That which we
saw, which a number of clean, tidy, bright-faced maidens
were gathering with great dexterity, which, however, did
not prevent their indulging in a continuance of cheery,
girlish fun and banter, appeared to be an excellent crop,
though the proprietor said the rice generally, even on
this moist new land, would be much better could it be
conveniently irrigated. In the store-houses we witnessed
the very ingenious contrivances, made by themselves,
for husking and cleaning the grain. But the industry
and ingenuity of the inhabitants are seen at every turn.
If a door-hinge is wanted, a bottle is inverted in the
MODEL SETTLERS. 101
ground as a pivot or socket for the door to swing on;
and this effective resource is apparent in all they do.
Their boats are carefully housed, in docks cut out of the
solid bank, over which strong sheds are built. If the path
is steep from the waterside, steps are neatly cut init. If
the water is too shallow for landing, a simple quay is
made of posts driven into the ground close together, and
the enclosure is filled up with soil. Their staves, shingles
and posts are the brightest and best looking of any, and
their charcoal of the first quality. The kilns in which the
latter is burned are made with that elaborate finish and
attention to detail which ages of sharp competition have
so markedly induced in the race. Their hogs are the fat-
test, and are the only ones I have seen in the West Indies
grown on the principle of high feeding. The poultry are
allowed to eat all the rice they can. One man told us
his crop of rice would be from sixty to seventy bags,
which would realise in Georgetown three dollars per bag.
Seeing that such fine crops of rice could be grown on
unirrigated land, a stranger might be surprised that it
should be necessary, with so much unemployed labour as
is seen about, to import any. Unfortunately, for the
progress of the country, the unemployed labour is not due
to want of openings for its employment. Whether their
much-loved opium is habitually or ever used by these
people we had no opportunity to discover, but in doors
or out we met no idle person, anda spirit of diligence
and industry, such as we have never elsewhere witnessed
in the West Indies, pervaded the whole settlement. I
do not say that all we saw was perfect according to our
ideas—they might, for instance, enlarge the scope of
their cultivation and improve some of their methods ;
102 TIMEHRI.
but the greater part of what we saw left nothing
to be desired; and to account for it all, there was evi-
dent a spirit of untiring industry, perseverance and
unity of action—qualities which these colonists show will
as unquestionably command success here as in any part
of the world,—a fact which is not sufficiently recognised
in the colony. It is unnecessary to say anything on the
controversial questions as to the maintenance of
roads and drainage here, which, it is said, has crushed
out settlers and villagers on the coast and river-banks,
and, admittedly, in some cases has pressed heavily on
men of little means. Living so far up the river, in an
isolated state, these people are not yet affected by road
ordinances, but I have shown that to the extent, which is
not inconsiderable, to which they require roads and
trenches, they have amply provided both for themselves.
If they are not troubled by the tax-gatherers, they
in turn ask for nothing to be done for them. Fur-
ther, having adopted Christianity, they appear to have
spent a considerable sum in erecting one of the most
commodious country churches in the colony, and in
making a landing jetty with steps and walks to reach it.
My companion remarked as we walked through the set-
tlement :—‘‘the Chinese are the ants of the human race ;
working has become an instinctive passion with them,
apparently exercising as strong an influence as the
ordinary passions do over other races.”
By the Cuyooni to the Orinoco, in 1857.
Extracted from the diary of W. H. Campbell.
[Editorial Note. About the year 1857 there was a true gold-fever in
British Guiana. Gold had been found in considerable quantity in
more than one part of Venezuela close to the frontier of British Guiana,
and gold in small quantity had even been found in the latter colony,
and a company had there been formed for the purpose of extracting
more. This gold-fever was of serious importance to British Guiana in
three ways; in the first place it had raised the old, and even now unset-
tled, question of the boundary between British and Venezuelan Guianas ;
in the second place it threatened to drain the sugar-estates and the
staple industry of the colony of the already too scanty supply of labour;
and in the third place, there were ugly rumours that the many, not only
from the hand-labouring classes but some even from classes somewhat
higher, who had rushed to risk success at the gold-fields, found at those
same fields, not gold but a speedy death from disease and starvation.
To gather information as to the true state of the case, an expedition was
sent, with the sanction of Lieutenant Governor WILLIAM WALKER, to
explore the Cuyooni River, which was, it was thought, the chief seat of
gold in British Guiana, and to visit the gold-fields which were even
then being worked at the head of that river but in Venezuelan territory.
The members of that expedition were Dr. BLair, then Colonial Sur-
geon General, Sir WILLIAM HoLMEs, then Provost Marshal, and Mr.
WitiiaAm Hunter CAmpsBe_Lt. These three set out, and being ac-
companied part of the way by Mr. McCuintock, who was then living
on the Pomeroon River as Postholder, reached the goal of their
journey safely, and returned in safety as far as the mouth of
the Orinoco; at that point, however, they all fell victims, under pecu-
liar and noteworthy conditions, to severe fever. Brought back to
Georgetown, Dr. BLair died on the next day; Sir WiLL1AM HoLmEs
recovered, but died, partly it is believed owing to the effects of this
expedition, within a short time; and only Mr. CamppBeEtt, happily,
recovered, Owing to the most unfortunate termination of the expedi-
tion, no account, save a very brief one in the minutes of the Court of
Policy, has ever been published, though each of the three members of
the expedition kept a careful diary, two at least of which, those of Dr.
104 TIMEHRI.
BLAIR and Mr. CAMPBELL, remain. These two diaries have been placed
inmy hands, At first I intended to combine the two into one narrative;
but I found that, in that way, much or all of the freshness of the story
as written from day to day was lost. I have, therefore, determined to
print Mr. CAMPBELL’s diary, his being the most full, but with the omis-
sion of a considerable-amount of personal matter, such omission
being rendered necessary by the great length of the original diary. As,
however, there are in Dr. BLair’s journal certain interesting notes, on
Indian habits and kindred topics, some of these have been added
as footnotes, and others I propose to publish on some future occasion
—probably in the ‘ Occasional Notes.” ]
*3| UR party, consisting of Sir WILLIAM HOLMES
Dr. BLAIR and myself, left Georgetown in the
=@4) schooner “‘ Pheasant,” at 3 p.m. on Thursday,
the 27th August, 1857, to proceed, by the Waini River,
to the ‘gold diggings’ at Tupuquen, on the river Yura-
wari, in or near the boundary of the Venezuelan province
of Upata. We had arranged to meet Mr. Mc CLINTOCK,
with a party of Indians, at an islandin the Waini just
below the junction of the Barimanni with that river.
At 6 p.m. the next day, we anchored off the mouth of
the Waini, but found the stream of that river so strong
that, without a breeze it would be difficult to make way
against it, even by towing; we therefore started the
next day in the batteau to proceed to the Indian settle-
ment of Coomacka,* on the Barima River, to endeavour
to procure Indians to assist in towing. The way lay
through the Mora channel, which is on the left bank of
* © Coomacka’ means ‘ Silk-cotton tree’ (Eviodendron anfractuosum).
The word ‘ Cabacabouri’ has the same meaning in Arawak.—Ep.
+ This passage is called by the Indians Morawhanna; Mora means
the zta-palm (Mauritia flexuosa), whanna in Warrau mean ‘ pass-
age’ or ‘ creek, —ED.
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 105
the Waini, about 3 miles from its mouth. At the junction
this channel appears to run parallel with the Waini, though
it afterwards turns toward the Barima, and connects the
two rivers by a tolerably wide and deep channel, about 6
to 8 miles long, through which a schooner might be
towed. In an hour and a half the Barima was reached,
at a point where, though said to be 4o miles from
the mouth, it is a fine, broad and deep stream, with wa-
ter perfectly fresh and very good though dark-coloured.
Turning up the Barima, the Arooka creek, apparently as
large as the Barima itself, was reached ; and in less than
an hour we came to the small creek, on the right hand
going up, which leads to the settlement at Coomacka.* In
going up the Arooka, three hills, seen before entering the
Waini, are approached; one of these is much larger than
the others and is probably from 150 to 200 feet high.
We rested for two and a half hours at the Indian settle-
men, which is near the summit of one of these hills;
but we found it impossible to induce any Indians to ac-
company us, most of them being from home. Returning,
we reached the Waini at about 10 p.m., and soon got
on board the schooner, which was then lying at a con-
siderable distance above the mouth of the Mora.
August 30th.—We set sail about 11 a.m., and, with
light winds, were enabled to tack up about 15 or 20 miles.
The river, about 10 miles above the Mora, becomes
narrower and deeper. Up to that distance the bank on
* This settlement appears to have been, not the true Coomacka,
which is some small distance off, but the Atopani at which the brothers
SCHOMBURGK made some considerable stay in 1840 (See Richard Schom-
burgk’s Reisen in Britisch Guiana, Voli. p 146), According to them
the hills there are composed of indurated clay, ,highly ochreous.—Eb.
O
106 TIMEBRI.
the west side is very abrupt, the water shallowing sud-
denly from 3 to 2} fathoms. Above that the bank dis-
appears, and the channel is deep close to the bush on
both sides. The bush, from the mouth of the river
upwards, varies little in appearance, and consists almost
entirely of mangroves (/hzzophora mangal), behind
which there are lagoons and swamps, where large
numbers of wild fowl breed or resort for food. The
stillness and monotony of the scene is almost oppressive.
Nowhere is the hand of man or his presence to be
traced, and the idea presents itself to the mind that here
the face of the earth presents the same features as when
it came from the hands of the Creator and vast antedi-
luvian reptiles were the only and undisputed occupants
of its surface. Some of the bends and reaches were very
beautiful, resembling lake and wood-land park, but with-
out a hill or height or distinctive object of any descrip-
tion to give expression or character to any one particular
scene ; each was so like the other that only the practised
eye could detect any land-mark.
August 31st—There being very little wind, and that
usually contrary, we made only to or 12 miles during the
day. The river still presented the same unvaried fea-
tures, being dark, dirty and deep, with an offensive odour,
arising probably from the nitrogenous elements in the
decaying roots of the mangrove trees.
September rst.—There being still little prospect of
rapid advance in the schooner, about 7 a.m. we started
in the batteau, with two days provisions, for the island
near the mouth of the Barimanni where we were to meet
McCLINTOCK. For some distance the river-banks were
still mangrove swamps; and we could scarcely find
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 107
standing room to kindle a fire for breakfast. But as we
approached the Barimanni, the mangroves became less
dense and mora-trees were occasionally seen. Reaching
our island, we found it to be of granite rock, rounded and
water-worn from the summit to the water’s edge. We
were somewhat disappointed at not finding MCCLINTOCK
at the rendez-vous, after having exerted ourselves to
keep the appointment.
September 2nd.—Making a minute examination of
our island, we found it to consist of three rocks of
granite,* separated by passages, narrow but wide enough
to admit our batteau. The one on which we were
encamped was oval and about 4o by 30 feet in diameter,
with a rounded and grooved surface sloping regularly
and by no means abruptly from the centre to the circum-
ference. t The second rock presents a very different
appearance, the sides being almost perpendicular for 4
or 5 feet above the surface of the water ; nor has it the
same abraded, grooved and water-worn surface. The
third rock is smaller and lower, and is so covered with
bush that we could not land on it.
Having to wait here for the schooner and for MCCLIN-
TOCK, we went on an excursion up the river; and, having
passed the Barimanni, about an hour beyond that, on our
right, we came to a large granite rock, sloping toward
the river, and grooved. It was about 30 feet high and
* “The granite here seems the same as that of the hill on which the
Penal Settlement is situated’, writes Dr. BLAIR.
+ ‘ The grooves on this rock radiate from what seems to be the apex
of a cone; they are from four inches deep at the commencement, but
widen and deepen towards the water’s edge, where they are about
eighteen inches deep’.—Dr. Barr.
O 2
108 TIMEHRI.
apparently part of a ledge of rock zz sztu, extending in
a north-westerly direction. Near by were boulders of
the same rock, all grooved in a similar way.
A few minutes later we reached a small creek, called by
the Indians Warrapocka, which wound in a remarkable
manner to the foot of a hill, on which is a settlement. On
landing we found several large boulders of similar granite
to that met with in the morning; one of these was
marked ina singular manner, withcircular indentations, on
the upper surface, a foot in diameter and from one to three
inches in depth. The settlement was inhabited by some of
the Spanish Arawaks who left Venezuela during the war of
independence, fearing enforced service in the army. To
our surprise we met a Liverpool man named WILLIAM
KENDAL, who had been settled here for the last 12 years,
and had married the daughter of one of the head-men of the
settlement.* He seemed intelligent and well acquainted
with Indian habits and customs. He showed us the pro-
vision grounds of the settlement, where plantains, bana-
nas of an unusually large kind, Indian corn of the largest
kind and some with the seeds variously coloured, yellow,
white, blueish, and lilac, with cassava and sugar-cane, all
grew luxuriantly. He told us that these grounds were
* ‘He was then about 30 years of age, and had for some time been a
servant in a livery-stable in Georgetown’—writes Dr. BLair; and he
afterwards adds of this same man, KENDAL, who accompanied the
travellers on their further journey, that he occasionally threw aside his
clothes and went as an Indian, without any apparent ill effect on his
health.
Having recently made enquiries about this man at the settlement of
Warrapocka, I find that he died there more than 20 years ago. His is
one of not a few instances in which solitary white men have lived a
happy, if not very ambitious, life among the Indians of Guiana,—Ep,
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 109
cultivated in common and that the produce was used by
the different families * at the settlement as they required
them. The place, he said, was very healthy ; the most
common malady was ‘buck-sickness’, which was readily
curable by native remedies. There was plenty of game,
so that it was necessary to buy little besides salt and
clothes. The houses were good and clean-looking and
better furnished than usual. KENDAL had chairs in his,
covered with the skins of tiger-cats and deer. We also
saw a rude mill, composed of two wooden rollers turned
by the hand, for squeezing sugar-cane, the juice of which
is converted into sling, to be used either by the makers
themselves or to be sold to the Indians of the Morooka.
KENDAL informed us that the Upata Mission could be
reached, overland, in about 6 days from Kariakoo on the
Barama; and, being asked to accompany us to Tupuquen,
he promised to give us an answer on the next day. All
around this settlhement we saw numerous boulders of
granite, much grooved and marked, as if subjected to the
action of glaciers, and also large portions of similar rocks
apparently zz setu. KENDAL informed us that there
were many of these boulders in the neighbourhood of
the mass near the mouth of the Creel, outs that pbneTre
were none in the immediate neighbourhood of the three
island rocks on which was our camp.
September 3rd.—Having returned to our camp last
night we found that neither the schooner nor MCCLIN-
TOCK had arrived; but the former came in sight early
this morning. Leaving a letter in a bottle for MCCLIN-
TOCK at the islands, we moved our camp to Warrapocka.
* The ‘different families’ must certainly have been elder, younger,
and collateral branches of the same family.—Ep. .
im ae) TIMEHRI.
In so doing, we had not long left the islands when we
saw two Indians in a canoe chasing a deer, which had
taken to the water ; a small dog was following, swimming
faster than the deer, but was kicked off whenever he took
hold. We joined in the exciting chase,* and I caught
the deer by the ear and fore-leg, but could not keep my
hold. At last one of the two Indians in the canoe caught
it by the hind-leg, and held it under until it was drowned,
after which it was dragged into the canoe, the dog fol-
lowing without assistance and never quitting his grip
until the deer was dead.
The manatee or sea-cow is occasionally caught in this
river, by taking a portion of the flower of the moco-meco
(Caladium arborescens) and hanging this—taking care
not to handle it except through the medium of a leaf—
over, and almost touching, the water, near where the
manatee is supposed to be; and as the manatee approaches
the bait, it is shot with arrows. +
In Warrapocka creek we saw the large Indian bamboo,
which has spines on the stem and has the advantage over
the bamboo common on the coast of being free from the
* ‘Much to the alarm of the Indians, who feared that we should
shoot, in which case the deer would sink,’ adds Dr. Biarr.
Indians are most unwilling to shoot an animal in the water, for fear
that it will sink; but if they cannot avoid doing so, they wait for a cer-
tain time after the animal has sunk, for it to rise to the surface. This
time, they say, varies with each different kind of animal; and they can
without hesitation tell how long, for instance, a tapir will take to rise
(3 hours), how long a deer will take, and so on.—Ep.
+ At the mouths of the Waini, Barima and Amacooroo, the manatee,
which is there very abundant, is caught by means of special and very
large harpoons. At the chief settlement at the mouth of the last of the
above mentioned three rivers, I was assured that for about half the year
manatee meat (which is most excellent food) is never to be had,—Ep,
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. III
attacks of insects. Split, it makes excellent boards,
durable for years. Some of the stems were from 50 to
60 feet high and of great girth.*
September 4th—Just as we had made arrangements
to start without him, a party of eleven Indians arrived
with a letter from MCCLINTOCK ; and he himself joined
us at Warrapocka about 4 p.m., with a party of about 30
Indians. We remained where we were that night, deter-
mining to start as early as possible the next morning.
After dinner we were entertained by a dance got up
for the occasion, the music being produced with a fiddle,
a frying-pan and a shaak-shaak, or gourd in which were
ene prickly bamboo here alluded to is curiously and by no means
widely distributed in the colony, and is very inadequately known. Even
to the unscientific eye, it is easily distinguishable from the common bam-
boo of the sugar-estates and the coast, not only by its prickles, but by its
habit of growth, rather singly than in clumps. It does, it is true, sometimes
grow in clumps, but apparently only where it has been long established,
and even then for some distance from the clumps stems growing singly
will be found scattered. It does not occur, as far as I know, east of the
Waini ; but it is fairly common all along that river, from near the
mouth upward, and on the Barama and on the Cuyooni, from about the
point where the once much-used Indian path from the Barama comes
out on that river ; it seems to occur commonly also on the Cuyooni above
that point; and it certainly occurs, though in a very local way, on the
great savannah of the interior. Now there are many indications that,
at one time, along this route, by the Waini (or by the parallel river
to the west, the Barima), the Barama, and the Cuyooni there was a
great migration of Indians on to this great savannah. And, this
particular species of bamboo being highly valued by the Indians,
who use its wood to make their arrow-points, I am inclined to think
that it has been gradually carried and planted along this route by
Indians; and that, wherever its native place may be, it is, like the
common bamboo of the sugar-estates, probably not indigenous to
British Guiana.—Eb.
112 TIMEHRI.
some seeds or pebbles. Dances and music were alike
monotonous. ‘The usual form was to advance four steps
to the musician, the bare right foot sonorously beating
the ground, and then to retire backward to the same time.
This was repeated by parties of two or three, with their
arms round each others necks, varied by an occasional
gyration, first to the right then to the left, till the dancers
were tired. This was continued till mid-night, before
which we had all retired to our hammocks, to be lulled to
sleep by the monotony of the music.
Before going to sleep, Mr. MCCLINTOCK mentioned
to me some facts worth noting. He said the zeta palm
(Mauritia flexuosa) abounded in the swamps bordering
the Barima and the Waini, and was one of the most
useful of the palm tribe. It often saved the Indian from
famine ; the pith was used as starch or farina; the spire,
or young unexpanded leaves at the apex of the plant
yielded the fibre of which hammocks were made; the
foot-stalks of the leaves were buoyant and strong, and
were used as shafts for the spears or harpoons with which
fish and game were struck, thus preventing their sinking
when dead ; the cabbage of the tree was the most deli-
cate vegetable and salad; and the tree when tapped
yielded 3 or 4 gallons of juice, from which two or three
pounds of sugar could be obtained. He also mentioned
that the ‘black mora’ abounded on the upper Barama,
and was much more valuable as timber than the common
mora, from which it is distinguishable by the absence of
buttresses at the base of the trunk. Being asked by me
as to the best arrangement for the safety of the money
cannister, he replied ‘I show the Indians what it con-
tains and tell them they must take particular care of it.’
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 113
This is a fine trait in their character, and no creed or
system of ethics could teach them a better morality.
September sth—To-day we joined the schooner,
which was then at the mouth of the Barama, which
river at its mouth is from 80 to 100 yards in width. In
the evening we were towed for some distance up the
Barama. ‘The current of this river is stronger than that
of the Waini, at the junction, and the water is darker;
it is said to rise and fall about 20 feet during the rainy
season.
September 6th.—This morning we left the schooner,
on our upward course. Soon after starting we passed
on the right hand the Waiwa Creek,* which seems about
half as wide as the Barama. The trees, chiefly mora,
on the banks were larger and finer than any we had
hitherto seen; and the palms, flowers and climbing
plants were beautifully interspersed and grouped, the
various colours of the foliage being sometimes excessively
beautiful and giving a rich autumnal colouring to the
sylvan scene. The colour of the mora leaves was an
especially striking and beautiful feature, leading one at
first to suppose that the different colours are produced
by different trees. On the same tree, however, may be
seen young leaves of the most delicately pale green,
fawn colour and pale red, gradually passing to the
darkest shades of each as the leaves become older. The
oldest trees are marked by a comparative paucity of
leaves, and these are usually not of so dark a green as
* The Warraus, at any rate, know this large creek as the Hina,
and I never found anyone who knew it by the name of Waiwa. As
however, the different tribes very often have different names for creeks
and places, it is quite possible that Waiwa is a true Indian name.—Ep,
P
114 TIMEHRI.
those of the younger trees, and by the branches being
covered by epiphytes. There was an abundance of a
prickly palm here, called ‘ yaruwa’.*
September 7th.—Nearly opposite where we camped
last night was the first ledge of rocks, at the margin of
the river; and from this point upward similar rocks, many
of them stratified, apparently clayey slate, occurred at
frequent intervals. The banks, too, continually increased
in height. Occasionally, too, at the points where the
river took some of its many abrupt turns, there were
banks of muddy sand. Examining some of the slatey
rocks, we found them when broken to be white and
ferruginous in colour and to resemble lime stone; but
when submitted to nitric acid no effervescence took
place.
September Sth.—Passing the mouth of the Corie
Creek, we were told that at the head of this there is a
considerable savannah, by walking across which Kariakoo
can be reached in about 6 hours. We occasionally saw
trees or shrubs bearing very handsome clusters of rich red,
or carmine-coloured, flowers, which I supposed might be
Brownea racemosa.
September gth.—About midday we reached the
Waanamoo Creek, from a point up which there is said
to be a path to the Cuyooni. It was the largest creek
we had passed on the Barama. The current was
strong; and the creek was so much impeded by fallen
* This prickly palm is a Bactris like, but certainly not identical with,
a species very abundant in many similar localities throughout the
country, specimens of which have been named by Professor TRAIL of
Aberdeen B. leptocarpa Nov. sp. This Barama form is very abundant
on that river and on the Barima, but I have not seen it elsewhere.—Eb.
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 115
trees as to be impassable. We, therefore, gave up the
idea of attempting this route to the Cuyooni, although
much the shorter, and proceeded on our way to Kariakoo.
Later in the day we saw a cut in the bush, about 12 feet
above the present level of the river, through which in
the rainy reason one can pass by a passage a few yards
in length, and thus save a circuit of nearly a mile. That
evening we reached Kariakoo.*
September roth.—This morning a number of Indians
from the neighbouring settlements collected at our en-
campment, with whom we had various dealings for the
purchase of cassava-bread, the hire of corials, e¢ cet.
Most were Accawois. Their style of ornament was
peculiar, some having pieces of reed through, and project-
ing 6 or 7 inches beyond, their ears, with red tassels in
front, and another piece passing through the upper lip.
Many of them were very handsome; and one, as_ he
crossed the river standing upright, motionless as a
statue, in a woodskin, which he caused to glide along by
one graceful touch with his paddle, was a perfect model
and study for an artist.
September rrth.—In the stream, on our upward course
we saw a large log of red cedar, which had apparently
floated down ; the portion of its trunk seen was about
80 feet in length, with a girth of 11 feet 4 inches at
about 20 feet from the base.
September :2th.—About 3 o’clock this afternoon we
reached the fall at Dowocaima, beyond which we could
not take our large corial. These so-called falls are a
* At this place Kariakoo, there are now three more or less, civilised
settlements, two occupied by Germans, one by a coloured man. Ep.
P 2
116 TIMEHRI.
series of rapids pouring in white and foaming streams
through chasms formed by the larger rocks, or small is-
lands, which are densely covered by trees of considerable
size, though much smaller than those on the adjoining
banks. We proceeded to an encampment at the foot
of the rapids, on the right bank going up, being a well-
raised sandy island at the mouth of a small creek. That
evening we had a long consultation as to our future
plans; and it was arranged that we should devote the
next day to sorting and packing such articles as we
intended to take on with us, leaving a depot of stores
here, to await the return of ourselves or crew. After
that a day would be required for dragging the three
boats which we intended to take on with us, and pro-
bably another day for carrying up the luggage. It
appeared that it would take us from 20 to 22 days to
reach Tupuquen.
It is proper to note that we were all particularly
pleased with the quiet methodical way in which Mr.
MCCLINTOCK conducted all our arrangements with the
Indians ; and we were satisfied that without his assis-
tance our expedition must almost certainly have failed.
It was also most pleasing to see the confidence reposed
in him by the Indians, his name being sufficient to secure
their services at any moment. Moreover, the good
humour and amiable disposition of all our Indians par-
ticularly struck us; not a single quarrel, angry word or
dissatisfied look has been heard or seen since they
joined us.
September 13th.—The Indians were employed during
the morning in erecting a hut, thatched with palm-leaves,
in which to shelter the surplus stores to be left at this
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 117
place ; they also made quakes in which to pack what we
were to take with us.
September r4th—By about noon the embarkation
of our stores and luggage, the latter now reduced in
quantity and packed in quakes for the overland journey
to the head of the falls, was completed; and we crossed
the river to the point where the path commences, on
the left bank going up. While the goods were being
carried past the rapids and the boats, which being
lightened, were hauled up, without much difficulty, Sir
WILLIAM HOLMES and I walked on to the point above
the highest fall which had been selected for our camp,
and examined the nearly dry course of a small stream,
the bed of which was filled with coarse sand, chiefly
quartz. It appeared to me that this sand was not the
debris or detritus of any rocks in the neighbourhood, but
the residuum of the soil through which the streamlet
flows, the clay being washed away and the gritty parti-
cles left. We also examined each of the falls carefully,
and met with several points from what they may be seen
to great advantage, chiefly from rocks in the bed of the
stream. The surface of these rocks was mostly black or
dark brown, exceedingly smooth and shining.* Three
of the falls, which may be seen from one point of view,
are of considerable heigh*, one being about 20 feet per-
pendicular, and the others about 15 and 10 feet respec-
tively.
September 15th.—At half past nine this morning the
boats were brought to the head of Dowocaima Rapids,
* Such rocks, their black and shining appearance being due to a
deposite of oxide of manganese, are common in most of the rivers of
Guiana, and are regarded with superstitious feelings by the Indians.—Eb.
118 TIMEHBRI.
having been carried about half way and then relaunched,
after which they were partly dragged, partly paddled
over the remaining rapids. Leaving our camp about
noon we soon passed a creek, on the right bank going
up, called Massiwindooie, probably the same which caused
SCHOMBURGK to name the neighbouring rapid Massawin-
dooie. This rapid is smali, but is rather difficult to get
over, owing to the narrowness of the passage. Presently
we arrived at a small creek, called Kamwatta,* on our left,
from the mouth of which starts the path by which we
were to walk across to the Cuyooni. It is to be remarked
that each tribe adopts a path for its own special use, the
Indians in their movements thus avoiding the chance of
meeting those of any other tribe. About this time we
began to observe that the continued wet weather which
we had encountered had had an effect on the Indians,
some of whom were suffering from severe colds; and
this made us regret that we had not provided a blanket
for each.
During the day MCCLINTOCK told us that he had
learned in various conversations with the Indians that
from a point two or three days further journey up the
Baramaa path could easily be made directly across the
country to Tupuquen, which might save us 8 or 10
days’ journey; that the path could be cleared for about
$20, provided we could get food enough for the Indians
employed on the work; and that the only reason why
such a direct path did not already exist was that the
Indians here had no communication with any settlement
in that direction. Although this may hereafter be an
* Kamwatta is the Indian name for the common bamboo.—Ebp.
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 119
important route to open up, we determined, as we had
not sufficient food for the Indians and could not depend
on getting cassava, to adhere to our original plan of
crossing over to the Cuyooni from here.
September 16th.—This morning we prepared for our
overland journey; but found that our Indians could
not carry all the baggage on one trip. We had,
therefore, to leave one or two behind, in charge of
such things as were left to be sent back for in the
course of the day. We started at 8.15 a.m., and after
walking for an hour through the forest and over marsh
and hilly ground, where quartz rock occasionally appear-
ed, we reached a Carib settlement, recently abandoned,
where we were obliged to halt for the day, to send
back our Indians for the rest of the luggage. At midday
they came with their second load, but there were still
some things left behind. In the course of the day,
some pieces of quartz with metallic particles adhering
to them were found in the creek. This caused us to
make further search, and it was amusing to see the eager-
ness of the Indians in watching and assisting us. Our
find, however, proved to be only pyrites.
September 17th.—Two hours after starting from our
encampment this morning we arrived at a Carib settle-
ment called Adawyne. The path was much worse and
more intricate than yesterday. We noticed considerable
quantities of gravelly soil in which blocks of quartz were
imbedded. In general the ground was undulating, and
well adapted for the growth of coffee, cacao and most
tropical products. In crossing a creek of considerable
size also called Adawyne, we found it bridged by a
large fallen mora-tree, over which, we were told by our
120 TIMEHRI.
Indians, Schomburgk had passed when he crossed the
path which we were now using on his way from
Aunama to the Acarabisi Creek and the Cuyooni. We
did not very clearly understand how the two paths should
thus coincide, unless owing to the circumstance that an
Indian will deviate several miles from the straight road to
get a tree such as this to cross upon. Some parts of the
path were very swampy and in the rainy season would be
almost impassable.
At the settlement there was a considerable extent of
cultivation, and some sugar-canes as well grown as on
the best estates near the coast. An unusually large
number of dogs—no less than 13—greeted us on our
arrival; some were large and fine, apparently of the
Spanish breed. Poultry and a few flowers showed a
comparatively advanced stage of civilization.
We learned to-day, with no small satisfaction, that we
might considerably shorten our journey by avoiding the
Yuruari and proceeding by the Acarabisci to the Cuyooni,
and thence by the Cooroomoo Creek to Toomeremo,
where horses can be had to proceed to Tupuquen.
The course taken to-day, though along the only path,
varied considerably from the proper direction ; to-morrow
we shall go nearly west, causing us almost to retrace our
course of this morning.
Just before dark the last detachment of our Indians
came in with the unwelcome intelligence that they
were unable to bring on the remainder of the lug-
gage, and that 8 or 10 hands must be sent in the
morning to bring it forward. This might cause us
to lose another entire day. It was also a source of
great anxiety to us to find that a severe cough and
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 121
cold was spreading among our Indians, no less than
11 being now reported as on the sick list. This we
attribute to the continuance of wet weather and the want
of covering during the night, when the damp and cold
and occasional heavy dews render a covering of the
greatest importance. We believe that had we provided
a blanket for each, much of this sickness might have been
avoided.* It thus became a matter of absolute necessity
to reduce our baggage to the smallest possible compass.
September rSth—During last night the coughing
among the Indians was more severe and incessant than
ever; and Dr. BLAIR recommended that all who were ill
should have their hammocks moved to one place, that he
might be able to pay them more attention and observe the
progress of the complaint. He seems to apprehend that,
if neglected, inflammation of the lungs or pneumonia
may ensue. It was also determined that some salem-
poras which we had with us should be cut into sheets, to
be used by the Indians during the night.
The remainder of our baggage was brought up by
11 a.m.; but, the Indians who brought it being unable
to commence another day’s journey, and many still re-
maining on the sick list, we determined to remain another
day at this settlement, to rest our hands and reduce and
repack our stores.
We bought from a Carib at this settlement, his
pepper-pot, containing boiled cassava juice and pep-
pers, in other words, fresh cassareep prepared in the
* An Indian, whether or not he is sufficiently civilised and unfortu-
nate enough to wear clothes during the day, sleeps naked—generally
with a fire under his hammock. When travelling in very wet weather
it is of course difficult to keep this fire continuously alight.—Ep.
Q
122 TIMEHRI.
way in which the Indians themselves use it, as a condi-
ment with cassava bread or meat, and we found it to be
one of the best sauces we had ever tasted, undoubtedly
better than the concentrated cassareep which is generally
used by all but Indians. The fresh cassava juice is
boiled for about half an hour, peppers being added ac-
cording to taste. Care is, however, taken to allow the
juice to stand some hours before it is boiled, to allow all
the starch to subside; otherwise the pepper-pot soon
becomes sour.
September r9th.—During last night we had been fre-
quently disturbed by outbreaks of coughing among the
Indians. These, by a little observation, Dr. BLAIR soon
detected to be in part got up for the occasion, a sort of
malingering, to enable the lazy ones to avoid as far as
possible the anticipated march with heavy loads in the
morning. When Dr. BLAIR by imitating them showed
that the sham was detected, their good-humoured burst
of laughter disarmed censure and went far to restore
them to our good opinion.
It was g o’clock before we could get all our Indians
off ; and even then five loads had to be left to be sent
back for. Our course was in a south-westerly direction,
toward the Acarabisci. The forest-path was better than |
yesterday’s, being usually over undulating, and sometimes
hilly, ground where magnificent trees of locust (/Zymenea
Courbaril) and other timber abounded. Occasionally
the path was at the bottom of a hill and evidently co-
vered by water in the rainy season. When we were
there it was wonderfully dry. We crossed the Mara-
wyne creek twice, and then came to the Aunama, which
we also crossed two or three times. We were told that
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 123
this was the same track which SCHOMBURGK had used.
About one o’clock we reached a settlement where we
encamped, having, by the promise of six bits additional
wages, induced some of the Indians to return for the
things left behind.
At this settlement the Indians were wonderfully primi-
tive, few of them having ever seen Georgetown, and
some never before having seen salt-fish, usually esteemed
by such people one of their greatest delicacies. When
it was first given to these, they turned from it with
disgust, saying it was stinking stuff.
September 20th.—Several of our Indians are still suf-
fering from colds and coughs, but not so severely as
before. The character of these people still impresses
us most favourably. They are so quick, ready and oblig-
ing, and so ingenious in their modes of doing everything
which they are required to put their hands to, that they
put the more clumsy and bungling European, with all
his advantages of education, knowledge and civilization,
completely into the shad2 in all matters where bush-life
and travelling are concerned. Their manners, too, are
exceedingly pleasing; they are so gentle, modest and
unobtrusive—and, in fact, most of them are by nature
perfect gentlemen.
Some of our Indians, going out to ‘poison a creek’
for fish, mentioned that the most deadly fish-poison
known to them is the wood of a tree called dawahy or
moraballi, chips of which, if thrown into the water, kill
the fish for a great distance down the stream.
Having to await the baggage from the rear, we were
not able to begin our march till 12.45. Our course was
still westward; and in about an hour we had crossed the
Q 2
124 TIMEHRI.
Aunama again, and came to that point where SCHOM-
BURGK thought it might be connected by a canal with the
Acarabisci. After that we seemed to descend from the
summit level which we had attained; and having again
crossed and re-crossed the Aunama, we eventually en-
camped on both sides of it, after a journey of about 10
miles.
For its bearing on climate, it is worthy of note that,
on arriving at our camp with our clothes saturated by
rain and perspiration, we found immediate relief from
chill and cold by simply taking of our clothes and
adopting the Indian costume.
September 21st-—To-day we reached the settlement
of Acarabisci, close to the source of the creek of the
same name. At this season, this creek was almost dry ;
and, as far as we could judge, at no season could it be
navigated even by the smallest woodskins. We were,
therefore, ata loss to understand SCHOMBURGK’S remark
about uniting the waters of the Aunama and the Acara-
bisci by canal. The head-man at the settlemeut, keeps
his wood-skin on the Cuyooni, two days march off.
From here it was arranged to send off a messenger in
advance to the Cuyooni, to engage the requisite boats.
To prevent mistakes, an “Indian letter’? was prepared,
to be sent by the messenger. It consisted of a series of
knots on a piece of cord, showing, among other things,
for how many hands provision had to be made and after
how many days the boats were to be ready for us.
September 22nd.—Having after some difficulty per-
suaded three men, by the temptation of additional pay, to
go for the luggage left behind, the rest were set to make
quakes, in which to carry the burima or cassava meal.
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 125
We were told that the sharp pebbles with which the
cassava-graters are made rough are fastened into the
wood by means of a vegetable glue called wabba, obtained
from the fruit of a tree or shrub called ducalli (not
ducalliballi). It must be a strong glue to stand the
friction and constant moisture to which it is exposed,
and might be useful if it could be collected and preserved.
It is used by the Accawoi and Carib Indians only. The
juice is applied without any preparation.
On the suggestion of Mr. MCCLINTOCK we determined
to send 12 or 15 Indians on to-morrow with the cassava
bread to the next settlement, to return here in the after-
noon, and that we should then all start on the following
morning after seeing the whole of our luggage sent on,
instead of leaving part of it to follow us as heretofore.
September 24th.—Even after remaining still all yester-
day, it was not till 8-45 a.m. that we could get all our
Indians under way with their burdens. There was a
manifest reluctance to go, and some persuasion had to
be used with several of them. Two were left behind,
sick, to follow us to-morrow. After a march of 4 hours,
we reached a deserted Indian settlement called Aranassi,
near a creek of the same name, where we took up our
quarters. On the way we saw a very large purple-heart
tree (Copatfera pubifiora), which had been cut down,
and had its bark taken off to make wood-skins. A large
tree such as this must be a fine sight when falling ; it
cuts for itself a space like a long avenue, overpowering
in its fall every tree of smaller dimensions, and allows a
blaze of light to enter where formerly the mid-day sun
could scarcely penetrate.
The Indians with the loads did not arrive till, some an
126 TIMEHRI.
hour, some more than two hours after us, showing that
the work of carrying begins to tell upon them. They
are by no means a strong race nor well adapted for con-
tinuous exertion, although naturally active and capable
of undergoing great fatigue in paddling for many hours
consecutively, or in travelling if not heavily laden.
In the afternoon we learned that the path to the
Cuyooni by the Acarabisci, by which we had intended to
go, is much the longer, occupying two days, whilst by
another path we may reach the Cuyooni in one day
from here at the fall named by SCHOMBURGK Kenaima,
which is about one day’s journey below the Acarabisci.
We therefore think of taking the latter path, sending a
messenger to direct the corials engaged for our trip to
meet us at the Kenaima fall.
The Indians amused themselves this afternoon, like a
parcel of schuolboys, at a game of ball, with the most
hilarious and uproarious mirth. The ball was of india-
rubber; and the fun seemed to consist in keeping it
rebounding by striking it down with the hand; whoever
missed his stroke was made game of, and laughed at,
most immoderately.
September 25th.—Having resolved to remain here
to-day, we sent on 20 Indians at 7.30 a.m. with our bag-
gage to Kenaima fall; but at 3 p.m. these same Indians
returned with the unwelcome news that the journey to the
Cuyooni could not be effected in less than two days, and
that they had left their loads at a settlement about half-
way.
September 26th.—We made every exertion to get off
early this morning, but found more than usual reluctance
on the part of our Indians to move, and several of them
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 127
absented themselves altogether or refused to go further.
One left without getting, or asking for, any pay, although
he had been with us for 10 days. However, about 8 a.m.
we started ; and after a very disagreeable walk through
a swampy, stiff, yellow clay in 3 hours we reached a
Carib settlement, where we rested. But, having ascer-
tained that the Cuyooni was distant not more than 2 or 3
hours walk, we resolved to proceed, after giving our
Indians arest. After a pleasant walk, over a fine, dry,
undulating country, covered densely as before with forest,
we arrived at 2.20 suddenly and unexpectedly on the
banks of the Cuyooni, which is here (a short distance
below Kenaima Cataract) a beautiful and broad stream,
with a fine, clear lake-like expanse, in the centre of
which is an island. A glad shout expressed our delight
at having thus ended our tedious march between the two
rivers. We found that the Indians sent on before had
pitched a very nice tent for us, on a height by the river-
side. A number of Indians, Ackawoi, Spanish Arawaks
and Maiongkongs, came in corials, canoes and wood-skins
to meet us, some having been engaged for our service,
some being visitors irom the opposite side of the river.
September 27th.—We agreed this morning to return by
the Orinoco, and to send a messenger to the schooner to
meet us at the mouth of the Barima. We also made
a vain appeal to our chef d’escadron to give the
order for a start; but so many difficulties were
thrown in the way, and there was such an obvious
intention to remain all day in the hammock, that we
soon saw that all representations would prove ineffectual,
and that we must make up our minds to. lose another
valuable day.
128 TIMEHRI.
September 25th—On taking an inventory of our stores,
we found we had barely sufficient to carry us to Tupu-
quen, estimating the journey at from 12 to 14 days; and
Mr. MCCLINTOCK estimated it at 20 days.
We were off about 9.30 a. m. in six boats; and almost
immediately we reached the first rapid. Here we saw a
new feature of the Indians displayed to great advantage ;
and we much admired their dexterity in carrying our
delicate wood-skins, with gunwales not more than 3
inches above the water, safely through the most intricate
passages in the rapids.*
The higher we went, the more beautiful did the scenery
become. Landing on a small island above Kenaima fall,
from the upper end of this, one of the most magnificent
views burst upon us. The river, dotted with islets and
rocks, had expanded to at least a mile in width, and
was shut in on all sides by a fringe of the most gorgeous
woodland scenery, in all the glory of a bright tropical
sun. Behind, on our left as we looked down the river,
was seen the great rapid or fall called by the Indians
Porro-eng. The sea-breeze was felt fresh and strong,
and the buoyancy of the air was delightful. Sir WILLIAM
HOLMES insisted on calling the place ‘ Fairy-land’.+
The river continued of great width above the falls.
* Mr. CAMPBELL does not state whether the boats were manned by
the Indians brought from the Pomeroon or by the new hands engaged on
the Cuyooni ; but there must have been at least some of the latter in each
boat, for the Indians of the Pomeroon, as of other rivers equally free
from rapids, are by no means remarkably skillful among falls——Ep.
+ Without throwing any doubt on the beauty of the scenery, it may
be remarked that the delight and exhilaration felt on coming out after
many days from under the dense unbroken shade of a tropical forest,
into a widely open and sunlit space is worth feeling.—Ep,
By THE CUYOONI' TO: THE ORINOCO. 129
Occasional ledges of rock appeared; though on the
whole, its course was very clear of such obstructions.
The current was generally slow. Our night’s camp was
made about half a mile above the mouth of the Acara-
bisci creek.
September joth.—Early this morning we passed the
mouth of a large creek, on our left hand, called Ura-
warawa, probably the same laid down in SCHOMBURGK’S
map as Uruaraia. Above this the river was for many
miles like a beautiful lake, its surface like a mirror, and
not a single rock visible. We also passed a small creek
called, by the Accawois, Wakenaam and, by the Caribs,
Waka. About this part of the journey several ranges of
hills were in sight. In the course of that afternoon we
passed on our left the beginning of a path by which it is
possible to walk to the Masserooni in 4 days.
October 1st.—The settlement at which we stayed last
night, called Warraput, differs from all we have yet
seen. It is close by the river, on a bank rising steeply to
the height of 30 or 40 feet; the houses are all enclosed
to the ground, and consequently very close and warm ;
some were circular, like those of the Macusi Indians.
On making the most minute enquiry we could not find
that any of the Indians of this settlement had visited the
hills in the neighbourhood ; they seem to entertain a su-
perstitious dread of hills of any magnitude, believing that
‘kenaimas’ reside there.
About noon we reached the Coroomoo creek, said by
SCHOMBURGK to be 20 miles above the Acarabisci. It
is said that in the wet season Tupuquen can be. reached
in 3 days by this creek; but it was impassable when we
saw it. During the day the sea-breeze was felt most
R
130 TIMEHRI.
refreshingly ; and with a sail it would have helped us on
very materially. It usually sets in as early as 8 or g a.m.
on this river; and from this circumstance, and the course
of the stream being nearly east and west, and thus ex-
posed all day to the sun, as well as on account of the
high banks and rapid current, Dr. BLAIR thought that this
river ought to be particularly healthy and free from the
miasma to which most of the other rivers in the colony
are subject.
October 2nd.—Many hills were still in sight. At one
place the scene was especially beautiful. The river
appeared to pass into a kind of gorge or defile, resem-
bling the approach to Loch Katrine and the Trossachs,
although the hills were by no means so high, apparently
not exceeding 1,000 or 1,500 feet. Not a palm was to
be seen and the bush-ropes were not numerous or notice-
able ; so that the scenery was much more like that of
Europe than of the tropics.
We camped on a curious sand-bank, laid out so sym-
metrically and regularly that it appeared artificial and
seemed levelled on the sides and top by rule. On first
arriving here, some Indians were found who, while they
were making a new field, had temporarily located them-
selves by the river side. These, on seeing our boats
approaching, fled, but returned with guns and bows and
arrows in their hands. This was the first hostile feeling
we had seen manifested by Indians. They were soon
reconciled, and in the most friendly way gave up there
own encampment to accommodate us.*
3 The Indians on this river seem to have been much harassed by
Venezuelans, and are always on the alert to avoid or repulse the latter.
See Timehrvi Vol. 1. p. 130.—Eb.
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 131
One noticeable feature of this, as of all the other
rivers of the colony that I have seen, is the intense still-
ness and absence of all appearance of animal life.
Scarcely a single bird, except in the morning and even-
ing a few parrots passing to or from their feeding
ground, is to be seen; and only a few notes, usually
most unmusical, are to be heard. Insects are everywhere ;
but these give no character to the scene. For the gayer
sorts, such as butterflies, are by no means numerous. The
ants and their allies the wood-lice, or wood-ants,. are
omnipresent and exercise the most powerful influence
in the destruction of all material which comes within
their reach ; for, from the crumbs which fall on the ground
to the monarch of the forest when old or fallen, all is
speedily reduced to a decayed mass, presently to mingle
with the soil. During the day the monotonous but loud
and shmili noise of the sun-beetle is almost the only
insect note heard. This is fearfully suggestive of intense
heat, being heard most frequently and loudly at Indian
settlements, where not a tree is left to shade the ground.
At sun-set the concert of razor-grinders, crickets and
grasshoppers of all sorts, aided by multitudes of frogs,
commence a din of innumerable sounds, which continues
all night long. No mosquitoes, or only a few and of a
small sort, are met with so high up the rivers.
Bees, however, are tolerably plentiful, and one
very peculiar kind was met with. One very small kind
which we looked at too closely one day in the forest
followed us for some distance and was only with diffi-
culty got rid of from our hair. They sting very slightly ;
but the Indians say that they eat the hair!
October 3rd.—Early this morning we had to pass a
R 2
132 ‘TIMEHRI.
rapid—which we did with some difficulty. It is called
Trumbang, or Tirumba according to Mr. MCCLINTOCK,
who says that it means ‘the tinkling as of metal’.
About noon we reached the Carib settlement of War-
racaba.* An.attempt was here made to dig for gold ;
the result being a black residuum, like oxide of man-
ganese, with one minute gold-like particle.
October -gth—We were told that in some dry seasons
the river may be forded here. Soon after starting this
morning we passed the Yacami Rapid, which was one of
‘the most difficult we have yet encountered. Above that
-the river was one confused mass of islands and rocks :and
one continuous series of falls and rapids.
October 5th.—We now felt the atmosphere to be ‘re-
markably dry as contrasted with that of the lower part
of the country through which we have passed. ‘Clothes,
wet at night, are here nearly dry in the morning ; and
our guns, formerly red with rust in the morning, are now
found quite free from it, although sometimes exposed to
heavy rain.
The banks here are high and sandy ; and the trees
are much smaller than, and apparently different in: kind
from those seen lower down. There was scarcely any
mora, and the few bullet-trees were of no great size.
‘There were: certain' trees which yielded a very adhesive,
white, gummy: juice, tasteless and inodorous, which as it
dries becomes very elastic: and can be drawn out) in
threads several yards long.
* Warracaba is an Indian (Carib?) name for the’ trumpet-bird (Pso- »
phia crepitans). “Yacambi is the Arawak name for the same bird. ‘It is
a curious circumstance that Mr. CAMPBELL mentions the existence of a
rapid in the immediate neighbourhood of this-settlement, which-he says
is called Yacami,—Ep
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 133
October 7th.—This morning we entered the Yuruan ;
which is here not more than half the width of the Cuyooni,
or about 200 yards; and the banks, as are the trees on
them, are here much lower than those of the main river;
but they become higher a short distance up. The current
is strong, and rocks and islands are almost immediately
met with. The water is dark in colour. Some of the
rocks present a basaltic appearance, with needle-like
points. Some 3 hours up the river becomes a good deal
wider. Here it is sometimes crossed by clumps of
guava bushes (Psidium aqualicum and P. aromaticum)
and its banks are low; from which I infer that it does
not rise very much in height during the rainy season but,
Nile-like, overflows the surrounding country. Six miles
from the mouth of the Yuruan we came to the mouth of
the Yuruari ; and hearing that there is no camping ground
for some distance up, we were obliged to remain at the
mouth for the night.
October sth.—The Yuruari at its mouth is not more
than 160 feet wide. A few hundred yards up some rocks
appear above its sluggish and dirty-looking water ; and
these seem to differ from those in the Cuyooni, appearing
stratified and as if intersected by layers of quartz. The
trees are mere scrub, and appear as if only a fringe to
the stream, with a swamp or savannah behind. On the
whole this river is singularly uninteresting at this part
of its course.
Four or five hours up, we passed two granite boulders,
each about 20 feet high, and each with a figure of a frog,
about 3 feet in length, neatly sculptured upon it.
An hour later we came to a series of rapids, caused by
the river pouring over most enormous beds and blocks of
134 TIMEHRI.
granite, which much exceed in height, and are much more
difficult of ascent, than any met with in the Cuyooni.
October gth.—In ascending a rapid this morning Sir
WILLIAM HOLMES’ boat was upset and sank. We took
the opportunity whilst such of his clothes as were saved
were being dried to visit the savannah, which lay close
by. It presented a curious sight to those who have never
seen such a place before. Undulating and hilly ground
stretched as far as the eye could see, with scrubby look-
ing bushes and clumps of trees and zeta palms (M/auritia
flexuosa) scattered over it. The soil seems poor, hard and
arid, with a scanty vegetation of tufts of coarse-looking
grass about 15 or 18 inches high. Great blocks of granite,
from 50 to 60 feet in length and breadth and about 20
feet in height, appeared in several places, all rounded
and water-worn. Almost every small hill was covered to
its summit by water-worn quartz gravel, of consid=rable
size, intermixed with blocks of quartz from 1 to 2 feet
high of various shades of white, pink and red. Cacti
of large size and aloes were also seen. The soil was
found to be mixed with black ashes, as if it had recently
been burned, as, we were told, it constantly is, to keep
the grass low and thus to guard against rattle-snakes.*
Proceeding again, we came in the afternoon toa greater
fall than any that we had yet passed, the noise of which
was heard an hour before we reached it. The river here
presents a magnificent appearance, being broad, and
* This burning of the savannahs, which is practised by the Indians
in all suitable places in Guiana is not fully explained. Many reasons
have been given to me for the practice; the most probable being
that the burning encourages a growth of young and tender grass which
attracts deer and other game,—Ep.
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 135
pouring its torrent through gigantic masses of granite.
Some little distance above this the trees almost entirely
ceased on the right bank and the open savannah was
visible from the river in several places.
October roth—Some Accawoi Indians, at whose set-
tlement we stayed last night, told us that the Spaniards
of the lower class at the diggings use threatening lan-
guage about the English, to the effect that we had better
leave them, the Spaniards, alone.
About an hour after starting this morning we passed a
most extensive rapid ; and here we saw a rock well-known
to the Indians as the ‘sun-rock’ and named by them
Wykoo, from certain sculptures upon it which they
imagine to represent the sun. This rock faces due north
and south, and on it there are several figures rudely
sculptured. The centre and most perfect one resembles
a figure which I think I have seen pictured as being on
Indian, Egyptian and Mexican temples. Two other
sculptures appear very distantly to resemble human
figures. A small symbol to the right of these is some-
what like a dromedary; but it may be a beetle or any-
thing else, it is so rudely done. The rock is granite,
and so hard that I could only get some small, weathered
specimens off it. On the wet side are also figures, but
less perfect than the others.
By the middle of the afternoon we were passing through
savannah on both sides of the river. Some of the trees
here appeared to have been scorched, and were dead in
consequence.
A large cactus abcut 20 feet high was occasionally
seen. From a hill within half a mile of the river we had
a delightful view. From west to north-east we saw a
136 TIMEHBRI.
high range of mountains, probably those bordering the
Orinoco. The view was diversified by nearer hills and
large savannahs as far as the eye could reach, woods
bordering the creeks and rivers, and clumps of trees in
ali directions. There was a fine breeze ; a thunder-storm
was passing in the distance; and the setting sun illumined
the whole. Altogether it was very pleasing.
Before long we passed the first cattle farm, with a
house, and a pen capable of holding 800 head of cattle ;
and soon passed others; and cattle began to be visible on
the savannah.
At night we stayed ata cattle farm called Massapiri,
formerly belonging to Colonel HAMILTON, who had a
very large grant here, including 8 or 10 cattle farms.
On the savannah here there were frequent coveys
of quail; pigeons were abundant, and several other
birds were seen which are not seen in Demerara.
Rabbits* also were seen by their burrows, but we did not
see these very near.
The house in which we slept was of clay, with a red-
tiled roof. It had a verandah on each side, and two doors
but no window, so that it was dark and close. The people
had charge of 157 horses; and much cattle was on the
savannah, of which they were catching and killing a few
to make ‘ tasso’ or dried beef. This tasso is the nastiest
preparation of beef I ever met with; the smell of it,
cooked or uncooked, nearly made me sick, and I| think I
could sooner learn to relish candle-grease than this nasty
stuff, unless it were divested of its odour.
hb fal el a an Re
* These ‘ rabbits’ may possibly have been armadillos, which live in
some numbers on the savannahs and make their holes under the nests
of the ‘ white ants’ (termites).—Eb.
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 137
The country between this place and the Cooroomoo
creek is open savannah, over which cattle could easily
be driven; and there is also a savannah on the opposite |
side of the same creek which extends for some distance
and approaches the Cuyooni. It would not, therefore, be
a very serious undertaking to make a road across this
country by which cattle might be driven to Demerara ;
and the people here said they would much prefer to take
cattle by such a road than over the mountains to Las
Tablas.
Enquiring as to the price of cattle-farms, we were told
that half of Colonel HAMILTON’S estates, of which this farm
of Massapiri formed part, and the whole of which extended
over a large tract of country and had several hundred
horses and about 20,000 head of cattle, was sold for
50,000 pesos, and could now be purchased for about
$33,000. The average price of cattle, here is about 10
pesos or S10 per head. The manager of these estates
arrived before we left; and we found him intelligent,
obliging and communicative. Wages, we were told, for
a trustworthy cattle-minder, such as we found in charge
of this farm, skilled in riding and using the lasso, are $4
a month.
October 13th.—Travelling all yesterday through much
the same country as on the day before, and continuing in
the same way to-day, we arrived about noon at Tupuquen.
Our arrival soon attracted visitors ; and among these
was a character name WYSE, last from St. Vincent, and
part proprietor of the /zrror newspaper, of mixed Yankee
and Indian origin, who gave us a most graphic account
of his labours at the ‘ diggings’ for upwards of three weeks,
the result of which was a single grain of gold, about
Ss
138 -TIMEHRI.
the size of a pin’s head, from a hole which he dug to feet
square and 14 feet deep. He said he knew what hard
work was, and had worked hard at various trades, but
that gold-digging was the hardest of all. He had had
two or three hundred dollars, but was now about to leave
without a farthing; a few, but very few, people had
been more lucky.
We went up to the village, about a quarter of a mile off,
and got quarters at the house of the alcade, one MOLERO,
who is also aninn-keeper. This village was a wretched
place; the houses were of the poorest sort; of wattle
and mud, and seldom had more than one apartment. Till
lately it had been inhabited by Indians alone, but these
are now giving way to others. ‘The situation is fine,
overlooking an extensive green savannah with mountains
on three sides. This savannah, we were told, extends far,
and would greatly shorten the length of road which it
would be necessary to cut to the Essequibo.
Donkeys are chiefly used for transport of every kind,
almost all supplies being carried on these over the moun-
tains from Bolivar or Las Tablas. Provisions, such as
fruit, and sugar in cone-shaped loaves called papillones,
are also brought from Tooporemo, about 27 miles dis-
tant.
In the evening we saw the ‘‘ Gaceta de Guyana” of the
19th of September, which contained information about
our alleged claims to the gold districts as part of British
Guiana and stated very clearly the arguments on which
the Venezuelans found their claim to the same ter-
ritory. We were told that the lower classes here
were inclined to stop us from proceeding, but that
it had been explained to them that they were in error
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 139
about our intention, and that if they dared to interfere
with us they would be put down by their own Government.
Caratal and the ‘diggings’ being on the opposite side
of the river, and 6 or 7 miles distant, we resolved to
postpone our journey thither till the next morning.
October rath.—We could not complete our arrange-
ments for leaving Tupuquen till late in the day, but
moved across the river to the house of an Indian woman
named GARCIA, whose son PEDRO JUAN GARCIA has been
very lucky in discovering gold. In the afternoon, walk-
ing very slowly, we reached the diggings in about two
hours and a half. The path is very good, up and down
hill, and through the forest the whole way. The dig-
gings are also in the depth of the forest, where about 70
or 80 huts thatched with palm leaves, have already ap-
peared. Round these huts are the holes or barrancas of
the diggers, usually square pits from 8 to 10 feet square
and from 8 to 20 deep.
In passing we saw HAMILTON from Demerara; he was
suffering from ill-health and was confined to his ham-
mock. He said he was doing no business of any import-
ance in the way of selling his venture, and had as yet
made nothing by digging. He had had to pay heavy
duties; many of his things had been broken on the way,
and others had not arrived.
October 15th.—Having put up at the house of a Mr.
GRAY, from Demerara, under his directions we this morn-
ing set all available hands to open a pit in what was
pointed out as agood locality. The implements required
were an axe or cutlass, to clear away trees and brush-
wood, a pick-axe, to cut through the roots and loosen the
stiff soil; an instrument called a ‘chickora’, which is like
5 2
140 TIMEHRI.
a large and long-handled socket-chisel, which is used
to cut square and smooth the edges and sides of
the pit ; * a crow-bar, to move the many larger pieces of
rock; a large hammer to break such masses of quartz as
are supposed to contain gold; a cradle—here quite cir-
cular—in which to wash for gold; and a few coarse bags
to carry the ‘greja,’ which is the gold-bearing soil and
gravel, lying above the clay, to the stream where it is
washed. From 2 to 8 men may be employed in digging
a pit, according to its size. These pits are usually square
or oblong, from 8 to 10 feet each way. Ours, there
being many hands to work at it, was 16 feet by ro.
While the digging was in progress, I started, witha
guide who possessed a minute and excellent knowledge
of all the Caratal hills, to visit the falls of the Macapero,
about four miles off. The guide pointed out the likely
places for gold, usually near running or dry watercourses,
which he said he had traced to their sources in the hills,
among quartz rock such as usually contains gold. We
found the fall to be from 30 to 4o feet high, the stream
falling over a large and solid mass of very hard rock into
a circular basin, said to be very deep. The whole coun-
try through which I passed was densely wooded ; the soil
was rich chocolate-coloured, yellowish loam, such as
prevails at the diggings. No quartz was seen; and the
guide stated that in many places where quartz abounded
no gold was to be found, but that where stones contain-
ing iron were near, or mixed with, quartz, there gold
would probably be found.
* ©The chickora,’ writes Dr. Bair, ‘ is not peculiarly a mining imple-
ment. Wesaw one at Santa Maria, where, as on other cattle-farms, it
is used chiefly in digging the trench along which the posts of the cattle.
pen are planted,—Ep,
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. IAI
After this I devoted the greater part of the day to
examining the pits at the diggings, and conversed with
many of the diggers. Without a single exception, they
had all suffered from fever or illness of some kind since
their arrival. There were people from almost every
country in Europe, besides natives of Venezuela,
the West Indies, and British Guiana. All spoke
of the work as very hard, a fact which was amply
confirmed by our own observation; and nearly all
seemed reduced in strength and pale from working
in the woods; where the sun rarely reaches them.
Most had walked from Las Tablas to the diggings, a
journey of from 5 to 7 days, partly across arid and heated
savannahs ; and to this we attributed much of the illness
from which they had suffered. Poor food had probably
also contributed to the same result. The result of the
information we got was that ‘the diggings’ on the whole
have been a sad failure and that most of the adventurers,
now supposed to number about 160 or 170, bitterly
regret having left their homes for such an unprofitable
pursuit. Some poor creatures were crawling about, too
ill to work and unable to get away, having run into debt
for the necessaries of life. On the other hand, a few had
been fortunate; one, a Frenchman, was said to have left
with $2,000 worth of gold; and several were now find-
ing from one to several ounces a day. The Spaniards
show the greatest neatness and dexterity in the work ;
and these, with the Indians, are said to be the most for-
tunate. One Spaniard is now making so much that he
can afford to pay a man at the rate of 810 a week to dig
for him, although but lately he was reduced to nearly
his last peso.
142 TIMEHRI.
The average quantity found per diem, at a rough guess,
seemed not to exceed } ounce for each digger, or about
30 to 40 ounces in all. The work is, however, very
roughly and carelessly done, and it is said that much is
lost in washing. The appearance of the country seems
to indicate the existence of gold in many places besides
that at present worked. The gold is said to be remark-
ably pure, and is sold in Trinidad at 22 dollars per ounce.
As usual, a great deal of gambling goes on, and most of
the gold finds its way into the hands of the gamblers or
strangers who keep eating-houses and gambling tables.
The price given here for gold is only about 816, or some-
thing less, per ounce; thus offering a good speculation to
any one with a capital of a few thousand dollars.
Many things here are extravagantly dear, especially
medicine ; a dose of senna or of jalap costs a shilling
and quinine is fourpence a grain!
October 16th.—This morning I went down into a pit
to examine the strata. Uppermost was a rich vegetable
mould, usually chocolate-coloured, brown or yellowish ;
next was a stiffer sub-soil, which is also yellowish;
next is the stratum called greja, in which the gold is
found, of loose and friable gravel, almost always mixed
with rounded pieces of quartz and stones in which, when
broken, iron is apparent; below this is a greyish clay
which is never penetrated by the diggers. Under large
blocks of quartz embedded in the greja nuggets of pure
gold are often found, sometimes of considerable size.
The ‘ greja’ after the larger stones have been removed is
carried in bags to the water, to be washed in cradles or
‘ batelles.’
We found some specimens of quartz with what ap-
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 143
peared to be specks of platinum in it; and one of the
diggers mentioned that he had found apparently the
same metal.
We were disappointed at hearing that horses could
not be procured under two days notice; and MR.
MCCLINTOCK and I crossed the river to Tupuquen to
endeavour to get donkeys, if horses were unattainable;
but we were given very little hope.
October 17th.—We were occupied during the morning
in making arrangements not only for our own departure,
but also for that of Mr. MCCLINTOCK, who is to return by
the Cuyooni, if possible by the Cooroomo and Acarabisi
Creeks, in order that he may obtain as much information
as he can about the nature of the ground thence to some
point near the mouth of the Essequibo or the creeks
falling into it, especially Groote Creek.* After we had
taken farewell of him, he returned to Caratal, to remain
there a few days longer if he should find sufficient
encouragement to do so.
In the afternoon we examined the old convent of
Tupuquen, which is now occupied by a German named
* The Indians under Mr. McCuintock reached the ‘ greja’ or gold
stratum on the 17th of October, and got some particles of gold from the
first cradles; but the pit was half filled with water by a storm during the
following night. Mr. McCuiinrock remained at Caratal till the 2oth ;
but the heavy rains continuing, and hardly one of his Indians being free
from fever and ague, he then commenced his return journey to the
Pomeroon. The Yuruari had risen much, and in 4 days the party were
carried by the rapid current down what it had taken 8 days to ascend.
The whole journey from Tupuquen to the Pomeroon occupied only
22 days, instead of the 45 days which the reverse journey had occupied.
Amongst the Indians, said Mr. McCuintock, there was no loss of
life. Eb.
144 TIMEHRI.
SOMMERS as an eating-house, store, butchery, gambling
den e¢ cet. It is ina wretchedly dirty and dilapidated
condition, but the remains of an old tesselated tile pave-
ment may be seen in the verandah. The whole is merely
a framework of wood and laths covered with mud, and
has stood remarkably well, as it is now supposed to be
from 70 to 100 years old. In its palmy days it can never
have been anything remarkable, but it probably afforded
the friars a comfortable retirement, in the midst of a
beautiful country, with plenty of Indians as servants, or
slaves, to minister to their wants and appetites. Rumour
states that the friars held the large possessions
attached to 32 missions about here as their absolute
property, and that they used the Indians as bondsmen
for every species of labour, and that they prevented the
ingress of Spaniards and other strangers into the mission
territory. All this was ended by the revolution. The
priests, having sided with the Royalists, were hunted
out of the country or massacred; .and the Indians
were for the most part scattered over the country,
though a few remained in their old homes.
From the summit of the small hill south of Tupuquen,
immediately above the burying-ground, we had a most
beautiful view of the surrounding country, which
presents on every side a grand savannah surrounded by
the Caratal, Noria and other mountains. The whole
seems as though it had once been the bed of a lake, which
when it burst its boundary emptied itself by the Cuyooni.
Hearing that two pedestrians had just arrived from Dem-
erara we went in search of them to Mr. SOMMERS’ hofe/,
where an indescribable scene of noise, bustle, confusion
and grumbling proceeded from a numerous throng of
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 145
diggers and idlers. ‘The pedestrians proved to be a Mr.
EDGHILL and a nephew of Mr. PRESTON’S, who had left
Demerara on the 1oth of September, and had come by
way of Bolivar and Las Tablas, walking from the latter
place to Tupuquen. They told us that, owing to some
informality in getting a proper manifest or bill of lading
on leaving Bolivar in a launch for Las Tablas, nearly
everything they had, including two donkeys, mining and
digging tools e¢ cet. had been taken from them; and they
had come on with little more than the clothes on their
backs. They looked weak and fatigued, and from their
slight build and small size seemed singularly ill adapted for
the hard labour of digging; in fact I should say it would
kill them in a few dayswerethey toattemptit. Underthese
circumstances, Dr. BLAIR thought it his duty to caution
them, and to recommend their immediate return home.
By the way, the Caratal mountains are so named from
the abundance of the carata palm in the woods.*
October 18th—After many delays and difficulties, we
succeeded in getting our horses, donkeys and guide, and
started at 11 a.m. for Upata, which is estimated at 2, 3
or 4 days journey, according to circumstances. Owing
to the rivers being flooded, we found that our journey
would take 4 days. The distance, by the road which we
were to follow, is estimated at 72 miles. On starting
we took a north-westerly course across the savannah,
toward the foot of the Caratal hills.
The scenery was singularly beautiful. From the top
* The Carata palm is Mauritia aculeata, a fan-leaved palm, resemb-
ling the zta palm (mx. flexuosa) but smaller, and with a much more
slender stem beset with prickles. It occurs in British Guiana, but only
on the rocky and higher savannahs.—Eb.
T
146 TIMEHRI.
of the first rising ground, looking back, Tupuquen, with
its red-tiled cottages contrasting well with the rich green,
looked pretty. And everywhere around the auriferous
appearance continued the same, the mountains seeming
from their shape and conical summits to be volcanic,
and the whole plain being everywhere covered with
quartz rock and pebbles in every stage of disintegration.
Accident or patient search will, no doubt, in time disclose
rich gold-fields throughout this region.
The characteristic plants of these savannahs are the
tree or bush called ‘ chapperal’* which is usually very
stunted, from the effects of burning, but at times is more
luxuriant and bears a sweet smelling whitish flower, not
unlike hawthorn, and the zeta palms,t graceful groups of
which are seen where are springs, rivulets or swamps.
Toward afternoon we reached a farm, near the banks
of the small river Miamo, where a ferry-boat is kept, a
comical-looking, flat-bottomed narrow boat, in which we
crossed. The horses and donkeys were then made to
swim across in pairs, led by a fine athletic Indian who
swam across before them with the halters in his teeth.
As we travelled we were continually reminded of
sheep by the blocks of white quartz scattered about on
the hills, which at a distance might readily be mistaken
for such. These same blocks also brought forcibly to
our minds the description given by Sir WALTER RALEIGH
of the white quartz rocks seen by him, perhaps on these
very hills, and called by him ‘ e/ madre del oro.’ The
total absence of real sheep, on pastures apparently so
well adapted for them, was also remarkable.
* Curatella amevicana.—ED :
| Mawuritia flexuosa.—EvD:
By THE CUYOON!I TO THE ORINOCO. 147
The house at which we stopped that night at Guacipa-
ta, belonging to a Mr. MIRANDA, was of a better des-
cription than any which we had yet seen, being substan-
tially built of clay, with the rooms ceiled and white
washed.
October 19th.—This morning we examined the old
mission buildings here. The situation is well chosen,
on the top of one of the savannah hills, and commands
an extensive and beautiful view on every side. The vil-
lage, formerly occupied only by Indians but now by a
mixed population, is composed of a number of neat clay
cottages, with red-tiled or thatched roofs, and stands on a
fine plateau in front of the mission. Some additional
buildings have been put up since the monks were driven
out, the materials having been chiefly obtained from the
mission buildings, which were much more extensive
than they now are. In one room may be seen the stocks
used by the monks for punishing the Indians, with nu-
merous holes worn smooth by the unfortunate sufferers,
and the frame-work smeared with blood-stains said to
have come from those who were flogged when in the
stocks. A centre holein the stocks, larger than those
on either side, is said to have been used for placing the
head in, as a higher degree of punishment. Another
room was pointed out as that in which singing was
taught ; and here much of the old furniture still remains,
such as benches, stands for goglets and jars of water
et cet., and the roof is lofty. In another room is a large
frame on which were made hammocks, all these missions
having been famed for the manufacture of these articles.
Long passages traverse the buildings, and off these are
numerous large and airy rooms all most substantially
T 2
148 TIMEHRI.
built and well finished. The doors and other wood-work,
being of the best and strongest materials, are in the most
perfect preservation. The church is really a very hand-
some, large and lofty structure, about 160 feet long by
45 wide. The centre aisle has a fine arched roof
supported on two rows of lofty pillars; and a
smaller arched roof is on each of the side aisles.
The roof has been coated with a pale pinkish cement,
which is highly glazed with some substance not now
known but which has been remarkably durable, the roof
although now more than go years old, having still a
beautiful glistening appearance as the sun-light falls upon
it. The floor is tiled; and the walls, although made of
clay, are very smooth and well-finished and look as well
as the best plastered work. The entrance doors are large
and lofty, and over them is a gallery where the choristers
must have sat, some music-stands being still left. Outside
the church is a small gallery overlooking the esplanade
and village; and by the side of this are two large bells,
hung on strong beams, and apparently still in use. We
were told that the Indians still resort to the church to
worship and burn a few candles.
On examining the walls of the mission, we were sur-
prised at the simplicity with which the wattles of
which they are composed are fastened together, by
pieces of bush rope, which seem as fresh as when first
put into position.
We were advised, and resolved, to proceed to Upata
by way of Platanal, to avoid crossing the rivers lower
down, where, in consequence of the rain, we might be
detained several days. We started about 11 a.m., and
about sun-set reached Platanal, so-named from the fact
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 149
that a single plantain-tree was found there when the land
was first occupied asa farm. As we approached, two
damsels took to their heels and fled, and, when pursued,
set a number of dogs upon us, and drew their knives ; but
we soon allayed their fears and showed that we had no
hostile intentions. The house was large and good, but
the entertainment most wretched ; nothing was to be had
but rancid ‘ tasso’ and cassava bread. Although a cattle-
farm of 5 square leagues, with 10,000 head of cattle,
80 horses and to peons, no milk, fowls, eggs, butter,
cheese or vegetables could be got.
October 20th.—About 8 this morning we started, and
proceeded round the shoulder of the Sierra del Bacaron to
Para-para, another large cattle-farm. We were much
pleased to find a patch of cane cultivation in the hollow,
before reaching the house; and at the farm we saw a
very nice sugar-mill, with three perpendicular rollers,
worked by two oxen, and two small taches very neatly
put up and scrupulously clean. The furnace and cop-
per-walls were very well built of brick, and plastered
with lime; brick and lime having been brought, at very
great expense, from Las Tablas. The sugar made is
poured into a frame containing thirty moulds, in each of
which the sugar, hardening, forms a loaf, or papillone,
worth about ten cents. The loaves are taken out of the
moulds after remaining about an hour to cool. The syrup
is much boiled, to give it consistency, by which the
grain is destroyed. Lime is seldom used, except in very
damp weather. A new mill was being put up, the rollers
of which were turned out of large and fine pieces of
locust-wood. :
Tobacco was also grown to a small extent, and was
150 TIMEHRI.
cured in bales and made into cigars, which were sold
at the rate of ten for a bit. Provisions and coffee were
also grown for the use of the owner, who thus enjoyed
many luxuries which all such settlers, if possessed of
similar energy, might share.
The view from this place is one of the most beautiful
that can be conceived, embracing a very wide extent of
what appears to be the richest and greenest country,
embosomed in woods, and stretching over height and
hollow as far as the eye can see. Yet this country ap-
pears almost uninhabited, instead of affording one of
the finest outlets which perhaps the world affords for
the redundant population of Europe.
The climate although warm is not oppressive, and
a refreshing breeze is seldom wanting. The rain is, no
doubt, heavy, but owing to the nature of the soil and
the excellence of the natural drainage the ground soon
dries; and no miasma or fever need be dreaded.
Leaving Para-para, we proceeded by a farm called
Santa Cruz, through a hilly country, and a more wooded
savannah than we had yet passed, to a farm called
Coomi, near a stream, of the same name, now easily
forded, but sometimes impassable. This place was more
wretched than any at which we had yet put up; there
was literally nothing to be had but the detestable tasso.
The people told us, by way of apology, that they
did not use milk because it was unwholesome and pro-
duced feverish symptoms !
October 27st.—After two hours march from Coomi we
reached a very nice farm called Tigre, where we again
found cane cultivation, and a larger mill than at Para-
para. There was also a small still for making rum,
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 151
On leaving Tigre, our way lay through a tolerably
level savannah environed by mountains on every side.
The height from the level of the savannah seemed to be
from 1,000 to 1,500, or in some few instances, 2,000 feet.
Toward afternoon we entered a ravine between these
mountains, and commenced to ascend toward the old
mission and puebla of Santa Maria. The path was in
places very steep, and none but sure footed animals could
mount it in safety. As we ascended we had most beau-
tiful views of the savannah below and its surrounding
mountains. The clear atmosphere, with the thinnest pos-
sible veil of vapour or haze over the hills, with the pass«
ing clouds, and the deep shadow of the wooded valleys,
gave an Italian character to the landscape.
Gn reaching the summit of the pass, the ruins of the
old mission were seen, on the top of a hill, commanding
a magnificent view of the surrounding country. There
were also two or three houses on adjoining heights. We
proceeded to a farm about a quarter of a mile further on,
also called Santa Maria, where we were most hospitably
entertained for the night by a Spaniard and his wife.
October 22nd.—On one of the buildings belonging to
the mission was marked in modern figures on the clay
wall, 1657, which date, we have been informed, was about
that when the missions were first founded. It is supposed
that they were dismantled, and that the priests were
finally driven away or massacred, soon after the ultimate
success of the revolutionists at the battle of San Felice
in 1813.
On one of the mountains to the south east there is, we
were told, a small lake near the summit, which our host
said he had seen but was afraid to approach, as the
152 TIMEBRI.
ground shook as he advanced. This hill is called
Guacamaio, and it was near it that the rebel BRASHE was
routed by General SONTIJA on the 15th of June 1856,
after which he fled and, being taken near Guacipita, was
shot and speared.
We did not leave Santa Maria till about noon ; and in
about an hour Upata was seen at the foot of a range
about 7 or 8 miles distant. We reached it between 2 and
3 p.m., and got lodging at the house of a German gold-
smith, blacksmith, butcher and cattle-farmer named
DRAEGER. We had scarcely made this arrangement
when a person came to ask for our passports, which had
not yet arrived, being with our luggage on the donkeys.
This led to a grand discussion as to our right to enter the
country except by way of Bolivar. Various rumours
were afloat about us, the general impression being that a
large party were coming up the Cuyooni to
claim the country and the diggings as British prop-
erty! It was also reported that Dr. BLAIR had
been killed by the Indians. We also heard that
a Mr. BRATTY had arrived here, with instructions
from Lieutenant Governor WALKER, but had already pro-
ceeded to Tupuquen. It was also said that Mr. SHANKS
and another were now on their way up the Cuyooni.*
A Mr. PEDRO MARIA NUNES introduced himself to us
as having been in Demerara and there married an Eng-
lish wife. He lives about a mile out of Upata, and
* These expeditions were actually sent; and the reports of Messrs
Bratr and Suanks, which however contain but little valuable infor-
mation, may be found in the printed minutes of the Court of Policy
for October—December, 1857. Among these same minutes will also
be found the report by Messrs. CAMPBELL and Ho_mEs.—Ed.
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 153
invited us to breakfast with him the next morning, which
we agreed to do.
October 23rd.—The situation of this village, surround-
ed as it is on every side by hills, appeared to us confined
and hot ; but we were told that there is naturally a good
breeze, and that the temperature varies from 18 to 22
Reaumer, whilst at Bolivar it is at least 5 degrees higher.
The houses are very neat, built in Spanish fashion, with
outside gratings to the windows, white-washed clay
walls, and red-tiled roofs. There is a church in the centre
square. I observed but one house of two stories; but
this was very nicely situated and, as in Mexican villas,
had a flat roof, where the inmates spend the evenings.
There are a few good lcoking stores, and several houses
are now being built. Altogether the place has a thriving
appearance, caused probably by the traffic to and from
the diggings.
As usual, innumerable delays prevented our getting
away from Upata till 7 a.m., but we reached Signor
NUNES’ house in half an hour. We found his English
wife to have been a Miss DAGG, daughter of JOHN DAGG
of Essequibo.
All the hills in the neighbourhood, we were told,
abounded in very rich iron ore, of which we were shown
excellent samples. After breakfast we were taken to
the hill* opposite the house, which is densely covered
with wood, through which we made our way to the sum-
mit. We found that the whole hill, from base to summit,
consists entirely of the richest iron ore. Some samples
appeared almost pure metal ; and our informant estimated
that these samples contained from 50 to 70 or even go
* This hill is called Sierra San Juan, according to Dr. BLAIR—ED.
U
154 TIMEHRI.
per cent. of pure iron. He stated that he had traced
similar rocks for more than 20 miles on each side of
Upata. Near the top of the hill the rocks seemed to be
particularly rich, the broken portions which lay about
being like the refuse of iron castings in a foundry.
It was past 3 p.m. when we left Signor NUNES’ house
to proceed to Mayore, distant three and a half leagues
from Upata. Moreover, having lost our way we did not
reach our destination till long after dark.
October 24th—Here at Mayore, as a somewhat note-
worthy fact, it may be remarked that we got a good
supply of milk.
Starting at 8 a.m. for Guacaima, our next stage, the
country through which we passed was quite as hilly as
before, and the road, or rather horse-track, was ex-
ceedingly rugged and bad. The country was much
covered with timber of small size, and open savannah
was seldom seen. Not a single house was passed by
the way; but an entrance, something like an avenue,
seemed to indicate a house in the neighbourhood. We
reached Guacaima about 1 p.m., the distance travelled
being called five and a half leagues.
October 25th.—We started this morning at half-past
six in order to reach Las Tablas, said to be distant nine
leagues, before dark. The road continued much the
same as before. A series of wooded hills lay on either
side as far as the eye could reach; and only one inhab-
ited house was seen, at a distance. On the right, the
road is for a short distance parallel with a mountain
stream, with considerable rapids and falls, judging from
the sound, for they are not visible through the trees.
This stream was the Upata. About 10 a.m. we passed
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 155
close by the site of the former mission of San Felicé,
situated on a hill below which the last battle for inde-
pendence was fought, and the Spanish army routed and
destroyed to a man. Here the savannah became more
open and level, and continued so, with but slight excep-
tion, for the rest of the way.
About half-past eleven, the majestic Orinoco appeared
in sight, barely visible through the rain-clouds which
were floating over the savannah. The sound of a great
water fall was also distinctly heard, coming as we after-
wards ascertained from the falls of the Caroni, which are
heard all the way to Las Tablas, from which they are
distant, I should suppose, not less than six or eight miles.
The view of the river gradually opened up, and was
strikingly grand, looking like an inland sea, two or three
miles broad.
Las Tablas, as approached from Upata, appears well
situated, on a high bank overlooking the river; but only
a few small houses and thatched roof as yet indicate what
its future may be. One or two stores of a better class
have lately been built near the river.
{Here ends Mr. CAmMpPBELL’s diary,—but Dr. BLAIR continues as
follows :—Eb. |
We found that the Alcade (of Las Tablas) had received
an order from the Governor of Bolivar to compel us to
proceed to Bolivar, there to be detained until he should
return from Tupuquen. We positively refused to com-
ply with any such order unless under personal violence ;
and Mr. MATHESON, the British Consul at Bolivar, who
fortunately for us happened to arrive at Las Tablas on the
same morning on which we arrived, telling the Alcade
U 2
156 TIMEHRI.
that he would take on himself the responsibility of our
departure, we left. We also agreed with a negro, a
native of Trinidad, to carry us in a corial to Kariapo,
the last settlement on the Orinoco.
October 26th—We were to have left Las Tablas at
10 this morning, but there was another hitch with the
Alcade, who refused the necessary permit to drop down
the river. Mr. MATHESON had again to be called in,
and it was 1 p.m. before we could get under way.
October 27th.—We did not reach this place (Barancas)
until midnight. A Mr. BURNETT, who resides here and
has a contract for the supply of cattle to the French
Government in Cayenne, having offered us a passage to
the Barima mouth in the cattle-ship ‘Loyal,’ we have
paid off our canoe-master, and shall sail to-morrow
morning.
October 28th—We did not leave Barancas till 8.40
a.m.
October 30th.—We reached Kariapo at to yesterday
evening. CAMPBELL was sick.
October 31st.—We left Kariapo at 8.30, and about
10.30 the pilot left the “Loyal.” We, with our servants
and luggage took passage in the pilot-boat, and started
off for our own schooner (the Pheasant) which, accord-
ing to agreement, lay since the 2oth instant at the mouth
of the Barima, about 5 miles from where we left the
“Loyal.” Last night CAMPBELL had a bad night, fever
and disturbed brain. I left the ‘‘ Loyal” perfectly well ;
but HOLMES had to be carefully hoisted down into the
boat.
Up to the time we reached Barancas we had enjoyed
perfect health ; we forded the river and climbed the high
By THE CUYOONI TO THE ORINOCO. 157
hills ; never a day did our steeds stand still; fresh we rose
up uponthe morrow; all our words and thoughts had scope;
we had health and we had hope—toil and travel, but no
sorrow. Our attempted detention at Las Tablas, however,
had annoyed us somewhat, and delayed our voyage down
the river till noon ; and we did not arrive at Barancas till
midnight, and there we were further detained. HOLMES
could not resist sleep; and he slept for five or six hours
on the baggage in the clear moonlight. We did not sleep
well that night (after arriving at Barancas) for we were
in a walled house, to which our forest life had given us an
aversion. We were tolerably well ; but after breakfast
HOLMES became sick and took to hishammock. CAMpP-
BELL and I strolled in the evening through the village to
the cross-road that leads to Tobasco and Maturin. We
passed most intolerable stinks of tasso and decaying
flesh and slaughter-house refuse. We found also that
the village is surrounded on all sides by lagoons which,
though navigable by schooners in the rainy season,
become dried up and covered with grass during the dry.
They were now half dry. The sun during the day had
been hot, close and oppressive to a degree we had never
before felt, and we had to close the doors and windows
of the house to keep out the heat. We had evidently
been predisposed to disease by the previous day’s hard-
ships, and we were exactly in the place where the germs
existed in abundance. All day yesterday HOLMES and
CAMPBELL were very ill, but up to this morning I felt
in good health, until we got into the pilot-boat. Then,
the two hours’ exposure to a parching sun, the slight
motion of the sea and the immediate contact with my
sick companions completely upset me, We had been so
158 . TIMEHRI.
confident of maintaining our health, after the severe
trials endured before reaching Caratal, that I had given
our medicine-chest to the Post-holder (Mr. MCCLINTOCk)
for the use of the Indians on their downward passage,
and had retained only about 40 grains of quinine and an
ounce of opium. The last of the quinine! gave away at
Barancas.
When we reached our schooner we found all well;
and we propose sailing this evening and hope to reach
Georgetown in five days.
[Here ends Dr. Brarr’s diary. On November tst, the schooner was
off the mouth of the Waini. The invalids were then suffering much
from want of proper food, the stores which they had left on the
schooner having been inconsiderately consumed during their absence.
There was hardly anything but salt pork and biscuit left. The next day
the pilot-tender met them with stores. The next two days they were at
sea, all the three travellers continuing very ill ; and at 4 a.m. on Thurs.
day the 5th of November they reached Georgetown. All three were
then extremely prostrated; and Dr. Biair died the next day.—Eb. |
& J
a %
Occasional Notes.
Etymology of the word ‘Grazl-stick’—On page 204
of the first volume of Zzmehrz is an allusion to the
‘ orail-sticks’ which are used on the wood-cutting grants
of this colony to drag the timber from the place where
it has been felled to the nearest river or creek, for fur-
ther transport by water; and there is an enquiry as to
the etymology of this word. Mrs. HAMPDEN KING has
kindly written to me on this subject as follows :—
‘““T have been trying to hunt up the parentage of ‘ grail-stick,’ and I
am inclined to think that its ancestry may be traced to the Dutchmen.
It occurred to me that as the Dutch were the first woodcutters, they,
in all probability would leave behind them the terms used in the craft.
On looking into an old Dutch-English Dictionary in my husband’s
library, I find ‘greel=horse-collar’ Now the grail-sticks are described
as ‘yoking men in couples.’ Considering the resemblance there is in
the meaning of the two words, do you think it possible that gvail was
once greel ?”
—
‘ Couvade’.—The subject of couvade, to which allusion
was made in the last number of 7zmehrz, is so curious
and so interesting that no apology is necessary for the
insertion, from time to time, as they occur, of further
notes on the subject. Mr. ALEXANDER WINTER writes
to me as follows :—
““T remember when settling with the Carib captain for his services
with Governor BArkKLy’s Expedition in Corentyn, he brought back the
salt-fish, and asked to have it exchanged for some other article. Upon
which, I asked him if he did not like salt-fish. He replied ‘yes, he
liked it very well, but could not eat it at that particular time because
his wife had belly By the way, where does the word ‘ couvade’ come
from? You remember the allusion to the practice in Hudibras; but
160 TIMEHRI.
as you may not have a copy of Hudibras with you in Pomeroon I
enclose you the extract: I think there is also something in BoswELL’s
Life of Johnson bearing on the subject, if not of couvade, of the priority
of the father’s affinity to the child over the mother’s, as being the prin-
cipal agent in its procreation.”
The passage from BUTLER’S Hudibras to which allu-
sion is made above is from the 1st Canto of the third
part.
“For tho’ Chineses go to bed,
And lie-in in their ladies’ stead,
And, for the pains they took before,
Are nursed and pamper’d to do more.”
Note on same page.—‘‘ In some countries, after the wife has recovered
from her lying-in, it has been the custom for the husband to go to bed
and be treated with the same care and tenderness. See Apollonius
Rodius 11. 1013, and Valerius Flaccus v. 148. The history of mankind
hath scarcely furnished anything more unaccountable than the pre-
valence of this custom. We meet with it in ancient and modern times,
in the Old World and in the New, among nations who could never
have had the least intercourse with each other. It is practised in
China; and in Purchas’s Pilgrims it is said to be practised among the
Brazilians. At Haarlem a cambric cockade hung to the door shows that
the woman of the house is brought to bed, and that her husband claims
a protection from arrests during the six weeks of his wife’s confine-
ment.” Polnitz Memoirs. Vol. 11., p. 390.
On the same subject I may add the following extract
from a letter which I recently received from a well-
known Professor of Philosophy :—
“ Tf ever you make out the couvade, I suspect you will find that its
first origin was a real sympathy between husband and wife. I could tell
you (if I had space) one or two very odd stories, where during preg-
nancy the husband, at a distance, was invariably affected by sickness—
vomiting in one case. Such things are laughed at by the scientific, but —
if testimony goes for anything, (and perhaps it does not), they are well
established.”
oesese eee
Ocean currents on the shores of Guiana.—Mr. ALEX-
OCCASIONAL NOTES. 161
ANDER WINTER, after his paper in the present number
of Zimehri on “ Our Muddy Shores”’ was in print, sent
me the following note :—
‘““ Another sealed bottle has been washed ashore on the sand beach in
Corentyn. It was thrown over from the ship Pleione, Captain Renaut,
in Lat. 2° 00’ N. Long. 29° 54’ W. 15th February, 1883, and picked
up 24th April, 1883.
Fonah-myths.—Among the incidents which occur, with
remarkable similarity, in the folk-lore of many and
remote peoples, the swallowing of one of the dramatzs
persone by some big animal, followed by his reappear-
ance, sound and unhurt, from inside the belly of the
monster is one of the most universal and has given rise
to much speculation. JONAH in the belly of the whale,
HIAWATHA in the belly of the sturgeon Nahma, Brer
Rabbit and Mr. Fox in the belly of the cow Bookay, the
seven kids of the well-known story in the belly of the
wolf, Red Ridinghood in the belly of the wolf, are a very
few out of very many instances. One other instance,
from Guiana, I may be allowed to repeat. In the Ooro-
pocari Fall of the Essequibo River there lived an omar,
or monstrous being, who used to feed on rotten wood,
and who used to drag down under water many canoes,
merely mistaking them for floating logs; but, all the
same, the Indians in them were drowned. So, one day,
an Ackawol peaiman, having carefully wrapped up two
pieces of the wood with which fire is rubbed, so that no
water could make them damp, dived down into the midst
of the fall and got into the belly of the omar. There he
found large stores of rotten wood ; and to this he set fire.
Vv
162 TIMEHRI.
Then the omar, in great pains, rose to the surface, belched
out the peaiman, and then died.
Now wherever, as in this case, an incident is found to
recur in the folk-lore of different people it need not be
assumed that this fact indicates intercommunication of
the various people by whom such an incident is told,
and that the various, more or less divergent, forms
in which the incident recurs are merely various cor-
ruptions of the story of some one striking incident
which happened before this inter-communication ceased ;
for it is, in many, perhaps in all, cases, more likely
that the incident as told by each people is founded
on facts or fancies which have occurred to each of these
people separately. For example; that the folk-tales of
most, or all, people tell of a world-flood, does not proba-
bly indicate that most, or all, people have retained in
their traditions a more or less corrupted version of a
real world-flood which at some time, previous to a
general dispersion of the nations, overwhelmed the whole
world as we now know it, but is much more probably
due to the facts (1) that floods occur locally in all parts
of the world, (2) that occasionally, probably in all parts
of the world, one of these floods rises to a very unusual
and memorable height, (3) that these floods, in propor-
tion as they are greater or less, do more or less serious
harm to the people of the flooded country, (4) that sava-
ges, or people in the stage of thought in which such tra-
ditions or folk-tales first arise, are apt to regard the little
bit of the world known to them as the whole world. And,
so it happens, that such people are apt to remember in
their traditions some one of the great floods which affected
their forefathers in their own small corner of the world.
OCCASIONAL NOTES. 163
But while it may be admitted that a wide, or univer-
sally, spread series of traditions of a world-flood, or of
any other such actual natural phenomenon, may have
originated in this way, it may yet be urged that the
swallowing-myths, or as itmay be convenient to call them,
from the example which occurs in our own folk-lore,
these ‘ Jonah myths’ can not have originated in a similar
way ; for it is impossible to conceive any incident which
can have occurred again and again to many different
people on which these myths could be founded.* This
difficulty is, I think, due to the fact that while such myths
as those of a world-flood are founded on some actual
fact—on some actual phenomenon—which has occurred
again and again to many different people, other myths,
and of this kind are these Jonah-myths, have arisen
equally naturally from some equally universally spread
habit of thought. The facts in the former case are
easily discernible by us; the fauczes in the latter case
are, owing to their nature, less obvious.
The habit of thought, or fancy, which seems to have
given rise to these Jonah-myths is this. It is extremely
probable, and entirely natural, that every people has in
some early stage of its mental development held, not
only that each and every body, be it human or animal,
be it animate or inanimate, is but the outer, visible form
* Tam of course not ignorant of the explanation that the‘ solar-
mythologists’ would give of Jonah-myths ; but it is so utterly impossible
to me, after a considerable and close personal intercourse with ‘ savages’
to believe that people in their stage of thought could ever have held the
highly elaborate and poetical conceptions which solar mythologists
would attribute to them, that I can accept no such dicta of that school
of mythologists.—Ep.
V2
164 -Timeuri.
of the being, which is the spirit within, but also that this
spirit is not destroyed, or indeed affected, by the cutting
asunder of the body or by its division in any form.
For example, among innumerable similar instances oc-
curring in Kaffir folk-lore, is one story which tells how,
to gain a certain end, a woman plucked the hairs
from her head and scattered them about in differ-
ent directions, and how afterward the tufts of hair
all spoke and answered in the voice and manner
of the woman; and, again, here on the savannahs of
British Guiana, there is a small bird which, because it is
supposed to be possessed of a malicious spirit, the
Indians kill whenever they can; and in so doing they
take care that not one feather drops and floats away, but
burn and destroy all, lest even a single feather should do
as much mischief as the whole bird would have done.
And if this is the universal primitive habit of thought
it is obvious that the mere fact of being eaten would not
affect the spirit of any body, and that, for instance, if
once a man that has been eaten can find a way out of the
eater, if, for example, the latter is cut open, then the
eaten one is free to come out, whole and uninjured and is
as he was before.
Thus each of the widely spread Jonah-myths has sep-
arately and quite naturally arisen from one and the same
very simple and most primitive savage belief.
Analysis of one year’s work on a Sugar estate—The
Honourable WILLIAM RUSSELL has very kindly supplied
the following very complete analysis of the work done at
OCCASIONAL NOTES. 165
Plantations La Bonne Intention and Beterverwagting
during the year 1882 :—
Acres in cane cultivation ... aa - 657
Acres cut this year Bae ae 657
Gallons Juice (180°) per acre as 4,776 gals.
Dry Sugar per acre ae ... 4,392 Ibs.
Sugar per acre in Molasses & Rum ... 2,630 lbs. total 7,022 lbs.
Tons canes per acre Ae ni 341 tons
Punts ” ” ” B90 ogg LF) 9
i pee deals 600 ON: 7,714
A » B.V.W. Sth Te 565 total 8,279 punts
Tons Juice L.B.I. aot .. 14,949
» B.V.W. ak tu 1,094 total 16,043 tons
Mu@anes less). Ee ED DATO)
3 » B.V.W. ne fe 1,640 total 24,056 tons
Per cent. Juice from Canes.. 66°6
Punts Canes per clarifier Bs gls 80" ) 1'4 punts
Clarifiers Juice each 600 gls. at 180°... 56338
Juice at 180° Fahr. gallons L.B.I. ...3,138,115
a i » B.V.W.... 245,215 total 3,383,330 gals.
Gallons Juice per 2000 lbs. nett hhd... 2,185 gals.
Average Glucose in Juice ... “64
» Density of Juice 8°55 B=Sp. G. 1,062
5, Pol’zation of Juice at 80° Fahr. 941
Sugar in Juice mnfac. into darkcrystals 834,096 Ibs.
Kj np ¥ ,», yellow ,, 4,140,790 lbs.
PcOmElabalicanes leer. ...4,613,810 lbs.
34 op Bi WaMe! pg Aa ... 361,676 total 4,975,486 lbs.
,, Obtained, dark crystals ... 652,002 lbs.
5 Ff yellow ,, .-.2,444,320
5 3 L.B.I. Se ... 2,885,835 lbs.
“5 af B.V.W. Fa ... 210,487 total 3,096,322 lbs.
is percent.darkcrystals... 781 per cent yellow 59
166 TIMEHRI.
Average Polarization of Juice at 80°
Gallons Molasses (14]lbs. per gal.) from Massecuite
10°34 lbs. invert sugar per gal.
per 2000 lbs. sugar
Rum distilled (43°2 o.p.)
5 rm Molasses shipped
Cane Engine hours at work
Juice ground per hour
2 copperwalls (487.25 O’ hss.) figures at ‘ote
Average gallons evaporated per 0’ h.s. per hour
Syrup from copperwalls at 170° om
_ 55 3 sp. gravity at 80° ...
No. I Vac. Pan (520 0’ h.s.) hours at work
Wa Ul oy) (G7 TE AS) pp An
Average gals. evaporated per 0’ h.s. per hour.
Cubic feet Massecuite at 90lbs per cubic foot, or
14°4 lbs. per gallon ... 566 460
Per cent. dark crystals Sugar from Massecuite
5 yellow ,, ,, 50 eet
3 Molasses from d.c, 38°8 per cent. Molasses
from yellow
2 Centrifugals, hours at work a
Hhds. Sugar (2,000 tbs. net) cured Pp hones
Wash set up (10552)
Per cent. Rum obtained ... 900
Inverted Sugar used in making 1 gallon Rum
Coal consumed $ 2,000 lbs. Sugar 9 ton. Total
5 ss ~ 100 Rum Sas
> , Acre cul, drainage 6 ,,
(Signed)
”
”
a
g'4i
181,694 gals.
1173s,
80,238 ,,
9,358 ,,
1465'6 hrs.
2308.4 gals.
2074 hrs.
13 gals.
2,038,435 5,
1083
2145'2 hrs.
2164°5 5,
1°02 gals.
62667'2 Q’
612
53°4
46°6
12646 hrs.
12 hds.
1,340,000 gals.
6'o1 gals.
23°9 lbs.
1430°3 tons
3778 5,
404°3 ”)
FOSTER MASSIAH.
New Plants from British Guiana.—I\n the February
number of the ‘Journal of Botany’ Dr. MAXWELL T.
MASTERS published notes on certain newand previously
undescribed species of passion-flower.
Two of these
are from British Guiana, where they were collected by
Mr. JENMAN.
One of these two British Guiana species,
OCCASIONAL NOTES. 167
together with a second new species, from southern
Brazil, have been formed into a new genus called Mzto-
stemma (MASTERS) containing the two species M7. Glazi-
ov and M. Fenmaniz. Dr. MASTERS notes that, it isa
singular circumstance that the only known representa-
tives of an entirely new and distinct genus should have
found their way into the herbarium about the same
time and from two such widely separated districts as
South Brazil and British Guiana respectively. The
second new passion flower from this colony has been
named Passifiora defictens (MASTERS).
It is intended to publish descriptions of these two
species, together with those of a very considerable num-
ber of other new plants recently discovered in British
Guiana, in the next number of this Journal.
EverarpD F. im Tuurn.
Report of the Meetings of the Society.
Meeting held Fanuary r1th.—The Hon. B. Howell
Jones, Vice-President, in the chair,
There were 17 members present.
Elections.—Members : Charles Simon Davson ; David
Hugh McGowan; James Richard Mckenzie; James
Gray ; J. M. Dawson.
Associates: John W. Gallienne; W. H.
MacIntyre ; James W. MclInroy ; H. Y. Delafons.
Treasurer’s Account.—TYhe Treasurer laid on the
table a balance sheet for the year, which showed a bal-
ance in favour of the Society of $3,321.62. Messrs.
T. H. Glennie and L. M. Hill were requested, and con-
sented, to audit the same.
The Amsterdam Exhibition.—The Secretary stated
that he had received a letter from the hon. William
Russell, dated 8th January, of which the following is an
extract :—
“ Business calls me to Berbice this week, consequently I shall not be
present at the monthly meeting of the Agricultural Society on Thurs-
day. This I regret, as I wished to lay before the meeting an extract
from a letter from Baron Siccama, in which he kindly offers his services
in connection with any exhibits that may be forwarded from this colony
to the Amsterdam Exhibition.
As there have been no arrangements made for space, etc.. by this
colony, I am somewhat at a loss to know how private exhibits could be
admitted ; no doubt Baron Siccama would use his influence to get such
placed in the exhibition, and knowing this colony as that gentleman
does, I need not point out the value of his services to any of my fellow
colonists who may wish to send on exhibits. Any aid [ can render in
the matter shall be given with pleasure. Perhaps you will bring this
before the meeting.”
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 169
The Chairman said that it was too late now for
private individuals to send from here. They might
ask ‘Mr. Russell to thank Baron Siccama for offering
his services. He could not but express his regret that
the matter had not been before the Society before
now.
Essay on the Sugar-cane Mill.—A paper was receiv-
ed from Mr. J. H. Mann, entitled ‘The Sugar cane
Mill; its usage and capability.”
The secretary said that it was a very long paper, and
Mr. Mann had suggested in writing that instead of
fatiguing the meeting by reading it, it might be desirable
to take it as read and have it published in one or two
newspapers. Acting on this suggestion, he had arranged
with the proprietor of the Argosy to put it in type, and it
would appear in that paper on Saturday, after which
slips would be supplied to the other newspapers.
The Vice-president said he did not think anybody
would want to hear the essay read now and that it would
be better to see it in print.
~Mr. Williams said that some of those now present
came with the express wish to hear the paper read.
The Hon. H. Braud said he was one of those gentle-
men who came with the intention of hearing the paper
read, but as the Secretary had mentioned that it would
be published in the Avgosy on Saturday morning, it
might lie over until next meeting and then be brought
up for discussion.
The Curator of the Museum.—A letter was received
from the Government Secretary acknowledging the re-
ceipt of aletter from the Secretary of the Society, in
which it was intimated that the Society had selected, as
Ww
170 TIMEHRI.
Curator of the Museum, Mr. E. H. Glaisher, B. A. of
Trinity College, Cambridge.
The Microscope.—Rules for the use of the microscope,
lately presented to the society by Mr. Alexander Reid,
drawn up by Mr. G. H. Hawtayne, were submitted ; and
it was agreed that the necessary bye-laws for the en-
forcement of these rules should be prepared and passed
in the usual way.
Donations—
Pamphlets.
“On the Animism of the Indians of British Guiana,” by
E. F. im Thurn.—From the Author.
‘Qn some Stone Implements from British Guiana,” by
E. F. im Thurn.—From the Author.
Newspaper.
“The Barbados Agricultural Gazette” (with Meteorological
tables) of 1st December, 1882.—From His Honour J.
Hampden King.
Engravings.
Illustrations to “ St. Ronan’s Well.”—From R. W. Imlach.
The meeting then dispersed.
Mr. Mann’s paper was as follows :—
The Sugar-cane Mull, tts Usage and Capability.
Before the reading of this paper, circumstances demand, and, I may
add, fortune permits me to say a few words anent the article on the
“ Efficiency of Cane Mills” by Mr. Fryer, that appeared in the Decem-
ber number of the ‘‘ Sugar Cane.”
The similarity of certain opinions and ideas, although expressed very
differently in the two papers, is so striking that I might be accused of
plagiarism. But as my paper was written before the arrival of the second
mail in December, I am sure to escape such a charge, particularly as I
had, in one portion, given Mr. Fryer the palm for originality ; so that,
giving publicity to the following, I am encouraged in the belief, that
the above coincidence will but strengthen the interest in both papers.
The feeding of a mill is a very important though neglected item in
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 171
connection with its capability and safety, and I intend to describe the
actual working, so as to point out the defects in the present style of
doing things, aud what can be done to improve matters.
The canes are thrown into the carrier, on both sides, in such a man-
ner as to make them lie, as nearly as possible, parallel with the carrier ;
this is of, course, a great improvement over the old hand-feeding pro-
cess, and works very well so long as the feed is regular. But there are
many contingencies to make it otherwise ; first, the laziness and stupid-
ity of the throwers themselves, sometimes throwing quickly, and then
standing up idle, or continuing to throw whilst the carrier, from some
cause or other, is not moving ; second, the changing of the cane punts,
—this leaves a gap on the carrier, on the one side, where there are no
canes, but which could be partly obviated by prolonging the carrier so
as to have a spare punt on both sides. This irregular throwing causes
the requirements of the mill to vary continually, alternating with a light
and heavy feed; with too light a feed the backers should be hard at
work, and, if not watched, they too often cause a “‘ choke” by careless
backing, that is, by turning back a mass of half-crushed canes, perhaps
stopping the mill and engine, or at any rate necessitating a stoppage
of the carrier, presenting a third contingency against regular feeding ;
again, we have a fourth, the choking of the mill from too heavy a feed ;
and all these are more or less dependent on, or consequent on, each
other. There is a sort of rocking, of consequence, backwards and for-
wards, between the throwers and the work done by the mill; if the
former be not constant the latter cannot be; all this results in short work
done, in two ways, from the imperfect crushing and from the loss of
time, inasmuch as the mill would be capable of a greater day’s work
were the feed regular, necessitating no delays; to say nothing of the
danger the mill is subject to, on account of the continued overstraining.
One might infer from this, I blame the throwers; but I do not. I
think it very hard to expect them to watch the movement of the carrier,
and to keep on stopping the mechanical movement, into which they get
when throwing canes; they do not, and cannot give the mill an exces-
sive quantity at any one moment, so that there should be no occasion for
stopping the carrier. They may however do rather more than usual
when they see “‘ big-wigs” about, whose presence inspires feelings of
energy which unfortunately the engine cannot experience; but even then,
Iam of opinion, that the excess of power engines possess over their
average development, should prevent any necessity for an intermittent
W 2
172 TIMEHRI.
action of the carrier. And if the carrier does of stop, how is it possible
for the poor fellows to put the canes on otherwise than regularly? A
heap cannot possibly occur if there be continued advancement of the canes
previously thrown, and I cannot see whence any cause for a choke or
stoppage is to arise, provided that the number of throwers and the
power of the engine are proportionate. So I argue, the remedy for all
this evil is in keeping the carrier continuously in motion. If once a
stoppage occurs, stop the throwers, empty the carrier and begin over
again.
While changing a punt, you must either stop the carrier and
all throwing of canes, or be content with poor crushing, the result of
the mill receiving but a half-feed, taking care to prevent the commence-
ment of the evils described above, by careful backing.
I can mention two other causes for irregular feeding, but of a totally
different nature; one is the too often excessive speed of the cane
carrier, which in most arrangements is equal to, or more than, that of
the surface of the rollers, thus bringing up the canes quicker than the
mill can take them, and causing them to heap over on to the top roller,
unless the carrier is stopped; when this is the case, the regulation of
the feed is wholly dependent ou the poor judgment of the mili-bos’n
in manipulating the carrier, instead of allowing the regular throwing of
the canes to produce the regular feed required. The other cause for
irregular feeding, is when the boiler power is insufficient, or when the
pressure of steam has relaxed temporarily, which virtually means a
reduction of the power of the engine, until it becomes incapable of
coping with the work given it to do; the mill chokes and the carrier has
to be stopped ; the remedy for this latter is, never to attempt grinding
unless the proper pressure of steam is available, it being better to wait
for the steam, than to make shift with low steam ; and for the former,
reduce the speed of the cane carrier to about 20 per cent less than the
rollers,
Next let us study the crushing of the canes, or rather how the mill
takes its feed.
To the question, why have our mills three rollers, few would be able to
give a ready answer, except it be because two will not do; when the next
question would naturally follow, why will not two do? and what is the
function of the front roller? If the front roller be screwed up to 4th of
an inch, the canes will not go in, and we reason, the rollers lack a cer-
tain something to enable them, when screwed up, to take canes and
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 173
crush them at one operation ; this something is ‘‘ power of grip,” hence
we have to introduce two operations, the first being a feeder to the
second, it however need not do any crushing, as the mill could be con-
ceived to work just as well, were the front and top rollers capable of
gripping the canes, without crushing them. There is no inherent ne-
cessity for taking ‘‘ two bites of a cherry,” and I am inclined to think,
the front roller, in heavy mills, does a very small percentage of the
total work.
Now granted we ensure regular feeding, as far as possible, by keep-
ing the carrier continuously in motion, so that the quantity of canes that
reaches the mill is what the throwers handle, in any one moment, we
shall not get good crushing if the mill “‘ refuses” her feed ; and here we
have an evil familiar to us all, the jerky movement of the rollers, the
terrible racking of the whole machine, the starting of keys, the loosening
of rollers and the like, and all because the canes, that are fed into the
mill, will not pass out between the top and back rollers, allowing an
accumulation of half crushed canes to take place, between the top roller
and the trash turner, which getting more and more solid every moment,
refuses to move forward, and is seldom released except by reversing the
mill.
This refusing, may by some be assigned to various causes, the set of
the rollers, set of the trash turner, a cane getting crosswise, or the
smoothness of the rollers; I] have seen attempts to remedy this evil, by
altering the position of the trash turner, but am of opinion, trash turners
have often been wrongfully blamed, and the sole cause is the smoothness
of the rollers; I do not say that a trash turner could not be so badly set
as to prevent a feed passing through, but that in all instances we have to
resort to some method of roughing the rollers; we make a murderous
attack upon the roller, with a heavy jagging tool, or hack away 10 to
20 per cent of its surface, by chipping heavy grooves for the purpose of
“ power of grip”; this however soon results in disap-
enhancing the
pointment, the same having to be done over and over again, because
the metal is soft and the roughing lasts a very short time.
Now we come to my strongest argument relative to the good working
of asugar mill. I consider we ought to blame the makers who have
supplied rollers of inferior metal, and would recommend any one get-
ting new rollers to have them made of the very best iron procurable, or
even of steel; for prime cost is of very little moment, in a matter of
such vital importance, Rollers should not wear smooth and shiny, but,
174 TIMEHRI.
if made of superior metal, will always remain rough, the grain of the
iron standing out in relief all over the surface.
For those who care to accept my suggestions, and to follow them up
with further experiments, I beg the perusal of the following, which is
the result of practical experience, and embraces an invention which I
publish in the hope it will be of some good to the sugar-making
community.
Let the rollers (top and back at any rate) be of good hard iron, not
necessarily brittle, and turned smooth, that is, without the usual tool
marks, which in rollers of inferior metal, are simply a farce, as they last
no time at all, and in rollers of superior metal, not necessary: they will
then possess the principle essential to perfect crushing, viz., smooth
surfaces, but to ensure perfect immunity from the refusing of canes, we
must introduce the groove; which preferably shall be as follows :—% of
an inch wide by 7 of an inch deep, semicircular at the bottom, and at a
pitch of about 3 inches to 33 around the circumference of the roller.
The chamfering of the trailing edge of the groove, as advocated by
some, I deprecate most strongly, as being unnecessary and absolutely
detracting from the power of grip ; the grooves should be cut slightly on
the spiral, and not parallel with the axis, so as to minimize the inequal-
ity of the sufaces of contact.
By this means, we have a mill possessing perfect immunity from the
objectionable “
refusing,” and whose rollers, being hard, will out-live
those of inferior metal, by not wearing smaller or getting hollow. These
advantages are productive of the happy result of better crushing. But
my invention, above referred to, goes a step further, and introduces an
idea, which I believe to be novel as regards sugar mills, viz., by causing
the periphery of the top roller, to travel somewhat quicker than that of
the back roller, there will be a bruising pressure, which, together with
such perfect ‘‘ grip,” will tear up the canes, at the time of maximum
compression, and liberate the juice with greater freedom.
This can be effected without in any way altering the design of the
mill, or disturbing existing arrangements, by merely substituting a new
set of pinions, the top having one tooth less than the bottom ones, say,
18 teeth in the top, and 1g in the bottom, giving a “slip” on the canes
of nearly 5% per cent.
The advantage of the hunting tooth is everywhere appreciated, and
will be particularly so when applied to mill pinions. They will wear more
evenly together, and must last longer, they are also indirectly strength-
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 1975
ened, for inasmuch as there is a certain drag between the top and back
rollers, through the crushed cane, by so much will the strain on the
pinions be lessened.
All this has been put to practical test, there being more than one
mill fitted in the way described, producing crushing superior to any
other single crushing I have seen, and suggesting the idea, that to
crush such megass a second time would be wholly unprofitable.
This brings us toa stage at which it may be ‘‘a propos” to say a
word on double crushing. I do not believe in double crushing, nor in
the arguments put forward in favour of maceration, the benefit derived
from the latter, being, in my opinion, limited to the prevention of acidity,
which might otherwise set in between the two mills!
Here again, I do not mean to say all double crushing is unprofitable,
but that we should be working to better advantage by paying attention
to heavier single, rather than to double crushing. Circumstances may
combine in such a way that double crushing is necessarily pro-
fitable ; for instance, an estate having two small and light mills,
neither of which can do heavy crushing, will do well to open up the first
mill and put the additional power into the canes at a second operation.
Butif put into the same weight of canes at one operation, it would produce
the same, or better result, by means of a larger engine and a stronger
mill, possessing the improvements suggested ; and even in the appar-
ently most successful arrangements of maceration and double crushing,
the question of commercial success must hinge upon the saccharine
quality of the juice, from which I infer, there is a sort of neutral point
in the polariscopic readings of the juice, above which, it may be profit-
able, but below, very much the reverse, particularly with the addition
of steam and water; this natural point cannot, of course, be defined,
but I consider the manager ought to be allowed to exercise his judg-
ment, under all the varied conditions as to whether he should do
double crushing or not.
There is an erroneous opinion amongst those who, I suppose, have
not thought much about these matters, that the work a mill is set to do
is a test of its capability ; certain mills are spoken of as doing so much
per cent, others that can only do so and so, whereas any mill can be
made to do differently, by varying the conditions ; its actual capability
is limited only by the ultimate strength of the machine. By in-
creasing the power expended on a given weight of canes we improve
the crushing or, vice versa, the same can be effected by causing a lesser
176 TIMEHRI.
weight of canes to absorb a given development of power. Hence, the
quality of the crushing must vary, directly as the power, and indirectly
as the weight of canes. Here then we have the backbone of the argument
in favour of slow-speeded mills; an increase in the ratio of the gearing,
decreases the speed of the mill, which if taking the same feed as before,
that is, the same quantity per revolution, will produce superior crushing
by means of the additional power available per ton of canes operated
on ; and | consequently advocate the adoption of the slow-speeded mill°
Another mistake a great many people make is in supposing the size
of the mill to be a gauge of the work it can perform; just because one
mill is larger than another it will not necessarily do more work or better
crushing, as this depends upon the power put behind each: this power
is the gauge of the work done, the engine is that which virtually does
the work, the mill being merely the ‘‘ medium”, the instrument by which
the power is put into the canes.
To illustrate my meaning more forcibly, I will use the following
simile. It cannot be supposed the substitution of a larger screw pro-
peller would increase the speed of a ship, without also putting more
power into the propeller ; so it is, that mills, although of different size,
must do the same amount of work, under similar conditions; if driven
by engines of the same size, some may be doing the better crushing, but
they do less of it, since we cannot have quality and quantity at the same
time.
Careful attention paid to the condition and working of a mill might
decide between profit or loss; as it is quite within the limits of proba-
bility to be able to improve the expression (and, relatively, the out-put)
from 60 to 66 per cent, or 10 per cent increase, representing of itself a
fair profit upon the annual expenditure.
I will now proceed with a description of certain tests for ascertaining
the comparative crushing power, under varied circumstances, of the
same and different mills; I say ‘‘ comparative,’ because it is not neces-
sary to know the actual expression of juice, to judge of the work done ;
this I will show further on.
We have first, the elaborate, costly, and I fear unsatisfactory experi-
ment of weighing a few tons of cane, and its components, megass and
juice ; but this, if correct, only tells us the percentage on the total weight
of canes, and is valueless as a comparison, since it is evident that other
canes, carrying more or less woody matter, would yield different per-
centages, under the same treatment ; neither can we correctly compare
REPORT OF SOCIETY'S MEETINGS. 177
this percentage with the total amount of juice in the canes, (found by
the diffusion process) ; because it is impossible to compare, on the same
footing, results of processes so dissimilar as the mechanical and the
diffusion.
If the test zs to be made in this way, we should have a powerful hand-
mill, capable of putting enormous power into sample canes, and so
ascertain, what might fairly be considered the maximum possible ex-
pression by mechanical means. Let us take some imaginary results as
given in the tabular form below :—
Actual Maximum Corrected
expression. possible. percentage.
60 o/o 80 ofo 75 o/o
65 85 70%
65 80 81d
From which we see, 65 out of 85 is only a trifle better than 68 out of
80, but that 65 out of 80, is more than 6 per cent better.
This I take it, would be a fair test, but one far too laborious for any
practical use.
Next comes the practice of treating average samples of canes and
megass, by the diffusion process, and drying, to discover the percentage
of.woody fibre &c. in each, from which a simple calculation will show
the actual percentage of expression ; this, too, is of no use as a com-
parative test, because we are comparing the actual expression, with
results no mechanical process can possibly attain to.
We see then how futile all tests are that attempt to discover the
amount of juice expressed, and | argue, we are altogether wrong in
looking upon this as a test of crushing; we ought rather to say
““ How dry is my megass ?”
I consider two mills are doing equal crushing, when the megass
from each carries the same percentage of moisture, independent of the
juice obtained; and to make a comparative test, we have merely to
weigh a sample of megass, dry it, and weigh it again. The percentage of
the latter on the former represents the quality of crushing.
For instance :-—
Comparative
Canes Juice Megass = Dry + water crushing.
100 7700/0 30 0/0 = 20 + 10 66% per cent
” 79 30 Tino ides TS 50 @
” 79 39 STOR 5 Ei ie2O 333
5 60 40 = 20 + 20 50 3b
” 60 40 marae Uomiewct 25 ‘37a
D 60 40 = 10 + 30 25
178 TIMEHRI.
Here we see the two samples of megass, marked a@ and 4, that lost
half their weight on being dried, (representing 50 o/o comparative
crushing), yielded different weights of juice, not because the crushing
was any better in one case than in the other, but because the total
quantity of juice was 85 o/o in one, and 80 o/o in the other; hence a
yield of 60 out of 80, is as good crushing as 70 out of 85.
The usual method adopted for drying megass is, I believe, exposure
to the sun, or to the radiation of heat from the outside of a boiler.
Either of these is a long process, and | fear unsatisfactory, as it is not
continuous, and suggests the probability of chemical action or decay
taking place. I would recommend the sample be placed in a copper
vessel, wholly enveloped in steam, at 50 or 60 lbs., inserted either in a
boiler, or in a separate vessel, supplied from the steam main, the
surrounding temperature of some 300° Fah. would effect comparatively
rapid evaporation of the moisture from the megass, without, I trust,
distilling over anything but water.
Another easy test that can be made without expense or trouble is by
the use of the thermometer alone, (suggested to me by Mr. Fryer, who
had already made some experiments); it involves the well known
principle of physics, that an increment of temperature is a measure of
the absorption of power. Thus, when under pressure, the canes part
freely with the juice, which gets away, but the megass remains, and,
by absorbing power, gets warmer than the juice, hence, the difference
between the temperatures of the megass and the juice can be taken as a
fair representation of the work done upon the megass, that is, the
quality of the crushing.
Experiments in this way have shown that a difference of temperature
of 7° Fah. is acquired with fair crushing.
I may add, in conclusion, a very good, and certainly the most simple
method, for judging the quality of crushing, is perhaps the use of
one’s eyes. We need not weigh or measure any thing, for the
appearance of the megass alone will tell us whether the mill
might be doing better or not.
JAMES H. MANN.
Demerara, 29th December, 1882.
ee
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 179
Meeting held 8th February——The Honourable W.
Russell, President, in the chair.
There were 8 members present.
Elections.—Member : J. Owen Alexander.
Associate: Thomas Morris.
Treasurer's Account.—The Secretary stated that the
treasurer’s account for the past half-year had been audit-
ed and found correct. A vote of thanks was passed to
the treasurer.
The Microscope.—Mr. Hawtayne moved the following
rules of which notice had been given at a previous meet-
ing for the management of the Society’s microscope :—
1. The microscope shall only be used by members and associates of
the Society, and on the table provided for it, and it shall be kept in the
rooms of the Society, and on no account shall it or any of its appara-
tus be removed therefrom.
2. When not in use, it shall be kept in its case, which shall be locked
and the key retained by the Curator or person in charge thereof, to
whom applications for the use of the microscope shall be made ; such
applications shall be registered and granted in the order in which they
are made.
3. No member or associate shall have the exclusive use of the
microscope for more than one hour, when it is required by other per-
sons, unless he requires it for some particular purpose which he shall
specify in writing when applying for its use, in which case such mem-
ber or associate may have exclusive use of the instrument for a period
not exceeding three hours.
4. The Curator or person in charge of the microscope, before de-
livering the instrument and its apparatus to, and on receiving it from
any member or associate, shall examine the same and shall point out
to such member or associate any damage or loss which the microscope
or its apparatus may have suffered while in the charge of such member
or associate, and shall forthwith report the same to the Managing
Director for the month.
5. Any member or associate who shall be declared by a majority of
the Managing Directors to be responsible for such damage or loss shall
X 2
180 TIMEHRI.
be by them required to make good the same; andin case of refusal or
neglect to comply with such requisition, the name of such member ot
associate shall be struck off the roll of members of the Society.
6. The brasswork and stand of the instrument, and also when neces-
sary, the apparatus should be dried with soft leather, before the same
are put away after use; and it is recommended, that great care should
be observed in cleaning the lenses, which should always be done with
soft silk.
The rules were accepted unanimously.
The Curator of the Museum.—The Secretary men-
tioned that the following letter had been received from
Mr. Walker, dated January 16th, respecting Mr. Glaisher
—the gentleman appointed as Curator of the Museum :—
I have the pleasure to acknowledge your letters of the 24th and 25th
ultimo, with accompanying documents, from which I learn with great
satisfaction, that the Directors have almost unanimously decided upon
offering the Curatorship of the Museum to Mr. Ernest H. Glaisher. In
accordance with the terms of the Extract Minute of their proceedings
on the 11th of December, I have made the necessary communication to
Mr. Glaisher, and I now forward his acceptance of office upon the con-
ditions named.
Mr..Glaisher has been sedulously engaged ever since I forwarded his
application, in studying the various special branches of knowledge in-
dicated as desirable by Sir Joseph Hooker; and it will be perceived
from his letter, that he is still so employed and will persevere until his
departure for the colony. I feel very sanguine that the Directors will
have no reason to regret their decision in this matter. I have also inti-
mated to Mr. Mellor the reasons which influenced them in declining to
avail themselves of his services.
I observe, in the Report of the proceeding of the anniversary meet-
ing of the Society, that on the motion of the President and Vice-Presi-
dent, the best thanks of the Society were awarded to me for my services
as Director resident in London, during the past year, aud I shall deem
it a favour if you will kindly become the medium of conveying to the
Society my grateful thanks for the honour thus conferred upon me.
Anniversary of the Society—The secretary said that
the 18th March would be the anniversary of the Society,
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 18t
and enquired what would be done in respect to it? The
President, Mr. Hawtayne, Mr. Imlach, and Mr. Garnett
were appointed a Committee to arrange matters.
Mr. Mann’s Paper on the Sugar-mill.—The Hon. W.
Russell referring to the paper by Mr. Mann on the Sugar
Mill, said no subject could be of greater interest to the
members than that of the expression of cane juice from
the canes, and he wished Mr. Mann were present to
discuss the subject; although the paper had been read
and remarked upon it would be better if he were present
to take part in the discussion on all points. He had
gone through the paper very carefully, and would like to
take objection to one or two things, he having had some
practical experience ; it would, however, be a waste of
time to discuss the matter during Mr. Mann’s absence.
He moved that the paper be discussed at the next meet-
ing, and Mr. Mann be requested to be present.
The motion was adopted, and there being no further
business the meeting rose.
Perey SU Nn 2
Meeting held March S8th.—Jhe Honourable W. Rus-
sell, President, in the Chair.
There were 9 Members present.
Elections ;—Members: The Hon’ble E. F. Villiers ;
James Smith; T. F. A. Williams.
Associate: Noel Menzies.
Nepaul Pepper Seed.—The following letter was
read :—
Government Botanist’s Office,
Georgetown, 28th February, 1883.
My dear Sir,—I herewith send you a parcel of Nepaul pepper seed and
a note from Mr. Tinne to Mr. Russell, which will explain the transac.
182 TIMEHRI.
tion to you. The estates in Mr. Russell’s charge have been supplied,
as have also the Botanic Gardens.
(Sgd). G. S. JENMAN.
W. H. Campbell, Esq.
And, in reference to the same matter, the following
memorandum from Mr. J. E. Tinne was also read :—
16th January, 1883.
The Hon. W. Russell,
Please apportion between Jenman and the estates a few of the Nepaul
pepper seed I have sent you per the Benhofe, and let the Royal Agri-
cultural Society have tke balance. Prestoe, in the Trinidad, and the
Jamaica Gardens, might have a few pods. It makes the most fragrant
yellow cayenne known.
The seeds referred to were placed at the disposal of
members ; and a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Tinne.
Potato Cultivation in British Guiana.—The President
exhibited a few potatoes grown by Mrs. Crossley at Pln.
Canefield in Berbice, as proof that the potato could be
grown in the colony.
He further stated that he had never before seen so
good a sample, of colonial growth. The subject was of
some importance, as one of the many to which small
owners might turn their attention. He had not had an
opportunity to take lessons from Mrs. Crossley, in
potatoe planting, but the next time he was in Ber-
bice he would call on that lady, and he would reduce
the result of his observations to writing for the use of
those desirous to try the experiment of growing English
potatoes here. He thought that Mrs. Crossley deserved
very great credit, and that the thanks of the Society
should be transmitted to her.
The Secretary said the only occasion on which English
potatoes, grown in the colony were before the Society
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 183
was, he believed, at the only celebration of the anniver-
sary of this Society they ever had, at which Mr. Peter
Rose produced English potatoes grown in his own
garden, but they were not so good as these; they were
greenish and looked waxy. That was many years ago, and
if the effort had been continued it might have been found
that English potatoes would succeed here.
A vote of thanks was accordingly passed to Mrs.
Crossley.
Mr. Mann’s paper on Sugar-Mills.—The following
letter from Mr. Mann, was read :—
Vergencegen, 6th March, 1883.
W. H. Campse-t, Esq.,
Secretary, Royal Agricultural and
Commercial Society.
Dear Sir,—Your favour of the 12th ult. came duly to hand, intimat-
ing that my presence at the next meeting is requested, so that I may
take part in the discussion on my paper “ The Sugar Cane Mill.” I
have now to acknowledge the honour that is done me, and to express
my regret at not being able to attend, on account of sickness which
keeps me a prisoner in the house.
(Sgd.) James H. Mann.
The Chairman said he was sure they all regretted the
cause of Mr. Mann’s inability to be present, to discuss
the very important paper which he had been good enough to
write and lay before the Society for the purpose of dis-
cussion. He (the Chairman) was prepared to go into the
matter fully with Mr. Mann, and he had brought a small
crushing mill used for laboratory purposes, and scales,
for weighing the matter ina practical way before the
members of the Society: also notes he had drawn out to
refresh his memory. He was ready to read these notes
now, and to have them printed, as it might induce Mr.
Mann to write another paper on the subject. He (Mr.
184 TIMEHRI.
Russell) knew that Mr. Mann was taking very great
interest in the matter, and he thought that when a gen-
tleman took the trouble to compile such a paper as Mr.
Mann had done, he ought to be encouraged to go on with
the subject, and if the paper were wrong in any part he
(Mr. Russell) was sure that the writer would wish to
have it pointed out.
The small mill having been brought beside the table
and several pieces of cane having been put through it,
Mr. Russell proceeded to read his notes, which were
as follows :—
The feeding of Mills.
There is much sound criticism on this head, and there is no doubt
much room for improvement. Planters who have given the question
much consideration have come to the conclusion that a man’s power is
almost the exact coefficient necessary to throw canes for a hhd. of
sugar. This point settled, the mill is set so as to pass the quantity of
canes necessary to make the given day’s work, and instead of the front
roll being deemed as of little importance, it is the set of this whichis a
safety-valve, and prevents such a feed passing to the back roller as would
cause a fracture. My own experience is that where the bulk of the
work is done with the front roller the expression of juice is the best. As
when the megass passes the turner it is denuded of such a large quantity
of juice as to reduce the absorption into the megass, after it has passed
the final tube between the front and back roller. This absorption is al-
ways found more where large mills are at work than with smaller mills,
because of the necessity to open the front rollers in large mills to enable
a large feed to be passed through. The best single crushing that I have
come across was at Le Resouvenir, where my friend Mr. Cornish set the
front roll to % of an inch, and ran out his engine so as to raise the speed
of the mill to something like 25 feet surface per minute. Thus he ran
through a thin fuel, and reduced the strain on his engine to a minimum.
The smal! mill before you has only two rollers, and has the rubbing
action described by Mr. Mann in the proportion two to one. I have made
some very important investigations with that machine, and determined
that with single canes, and by a man’s power at the crank, percentages
REPORT OF SOCIETY'S MEETINGS. 185
have been obtained as per accompanying table according to the woody
fibre in the cane up to 68 per cent. In making these investigations it is
‘necessary to be provided with accurate means of weighing the canes
operated upon. The set on the table were procured for me by my friend
Mr. Williams, and are admirably suited for the purpose. It is when one
is brought face to face with the quantitative analysis of certain products,
that one discovers errors made by theorists who write without making
_ such experiments. Taking an example from Mr. Mann’s table giving
percentages of crushing under various conditions of the sugar cane,
we have :—
Cane. Juice. Megass. Dry Percentage.
100 70 30 © = 33%
Nowangoypounds;merass) from) Mil) ii ta.: ce niuesce agi dae scunrindedenssincmecits «ae
OM raya ysrsioscle teite css sae epee galSiieito wis ora sciiieatearsaiie keltes ac bina dete ns etes
20 must have been got rid of as vapour (water) so that this water
must have left a proportionate quantity of Sugar in the megass to what
was contained in the original cane juice, say 16 per cent.
Therefore we have 84 :: 20 :: 16 x 3. 81. The wet megass must
be composed of :—
INUOISEUTO sae Cea GT ae onan 20
SifGES CLRAAORARS RA BGOH Pn ERie Aas One ae PBR R Ear ene mn 3-81
NUYS ie a ie EC DE rel ee a AA eae 6.19
30
which would reduce the fibre in the cane to the same proportion as that
found in the beet. It is evident that Mr. Mann has never worked out a
quantitative analysis of megass, and this may account for his not seeing
the advantage of what is known as double crushing and maceration, for
it is self-evident that for every 20 tbs. of moisture carried away in the
megass there are combined with it 3°81 tbs. of sugar. Surely the differ-
ence in some shape ought to be applied to reduce this loss. I lay over
a table compiled from analysis of megass.
I am quite at one with Mr. Mann in the opinion that more care ought
to be taken in feeding mills: a moderate steady feed always gives the
best results, both in the quality of crushing and in quantity of work,
and I consider those who have extended their cane carriers to admit 4
cane punts—two a side—have made a step in the right direction.
These are a few points on which I somewhat differ from Mr. Mann. A
small mill may give such good results as to put dry double crushing out
Y
186 TIMEHRI.
of the question, but in my opinion the larger the mill the more necessity
arises for double crushing.
Mr. Russell, continuing, said these were briefly the
remarks he had to make upon Mr. Mann’s paper, and
the results as worked out by him (Mr. Russell) by actual
observation of the crushing of canes by means of a ma-
chine like that (pointing to the small crushing machine
in the room). ‘This was a question of the first magnitude
to planters. Mr. Fryer had written a good deal about it,
and had fallen into several errors; others too had written
a great deal since, and they had also occasionally fallen
into errors. He confessed that he, aiso, when making
experiments, used to make grievous errors; one of
these was always estimating the sugar contained in
the cane in value as sugar, whereas sugar in the cane
should be valued as cane juice. The whole cost of
manufacturing the sugar had to be considered. In crush-
ing canes, it was not that they lost so much in the
value of sugar, but so much cane juice. In an admirable
essay by Mr. Blake, Skeldon, on trenches, he also fell
into a similar error. He calculated on the land produc-
ing so much sugar, valuing that sugar as sugar ; he forgot
that it was only canes, which he had to get manufac-
tured, and there was all the expense of transportation,
which makes a very great difference. He had read in
one of the local newspapers articles with regard to the
waste of molasses, but it must be remembered that these
were very low molasses, and produced only a very small
quantity of sugar. They had all their idiosyncrasies,
and were very liable to fall into error when making cal-
culations with regard to the hobby they were at just now.
Again, in some of the earlier publications of this Society,
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 187
on the manufacture of sugar cane, he found many errors
in the calculations, and these errors had often been
reproduced. He trusted that some other member of the
Society would be able to give them the result of experi-
ence. It might be remembered that Dr. Filmer, who
gave this question an immense deal of attention, wrote
a great many papers on the question of crushing cane,
and he then expressed an opinion that it was not the
size of a mill that meant good crushing. Of course, he
need not tell them that in deciding the percentage of
sugar from the canes, they had to be most particular in
crushing, so that juice and refuse megass may be actually
the same weight as the canes, minus the moisture. The
table he had now tried to complete was drawn out from
the results of a€tual experience from observation. He
had no doubt that the time would come when they would
be thoroughly acquainted with all the details for the more
economical crushing of a cane.
Mr. Williams hoped to have heard some gentleman
criticise Mr. Mann’s paper, with respect to the working
of the mill.
Mr. Stokes having enquired as to certain grating sounds
sometimes caused by the mill ; Mr. Russell explained that
these were caused by one of the rollers not properly per-
forming its work; and he added that great care ought
to be taken in feeding the mills.
Mr. Campbell having asked whether Mr. Russell’s
note should be published, Mr. Russell replied in the
affirmative. It was to invite criticism, and it was,
he thought, one of the most important things to plan-
ters. Although they pride themselves on their know-
ledge they had yet a lot to learn. Mr. Mann would
YNZ
188 TIMEHRI.
in the meantime read the discussion that had taken
place and that would all the better enable him to dis-
cuss the matter. This was the most important subjeét
of all to the planters, and was most fertile of suggestions
to any one who would take the trouble to go into the
subject. The longer he lived, the more ignorant did he
find himself in everything with regard to the treatment
of cane juice; they were simply in their infancy. It was
advisable to use the scale and weights in crushing
canes.
The Curator of the Museum.—Mr. Campbell stated
that he had been advised that Mr. Ernest Glaisher, the
newly appointed curator of the Museum, would leave
England by the mail of the 2nd instant. He would,
therefore, probably be able to assume his duties about
the 22nd instant.
The meeting then terminated.
——_—_@——_—_
Meeting held 12th April.—Mr. G. L. Davson, in the
absence of the President, in the chair.
There were 10 members present.
Elections —MWembers: W. Bovell Jones; M. Shan-
non, M. D; Scott Herriot, W. Davis M. D.
Associates: G. Corronel: John Wood
Davis: Alfred Augustus D’Andrade; C. A. Cunha ;
R.. Maclean.
Treasurer’s Account.—The financial statement for
the quarter ending 31st March, showing a balance of
1,349 go to the good, was laid on the table.
Limehri—The concluding part of the first volume of
Timehri, the Society’s Journal, together with the follow-
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 189
ing letter from Mr. im Thurn, the editor was formally
presented to the Society :—
Pomeroon, 23rd January, 1883.
To W. H. CampseELt, Esq.
Hon. Sec. of the Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society of
British Guiana.
Sir,—Accompanying this you will receive a copy of the 2nd Part of
Timehri immediately on its publication. Will you be good enough to
lay the same before the Society at its next meeting. I have given in-
structions that a second copy should be delivered at once to the Libra-
rian, for immediate use in the rooms of the Society.
I regret the unavoidable delay in the publication of this part ; and |
trust that so long delay may not occur again.
I have the honour Sir, to be,
Your obedient Servant,
EVERARD F. im THURN.
Mr. Tinne proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. im Thurn,
for the way in which he had superintended the second
part of Zimehrz. He thought those who read the part
would find that it was in no way inferior to its prede-
cessor; and he only hoped that Mr. im Thurn would be
able to continue his duties as editor.
Sugar-maize Seeds.—Mr. J. E. Tinne presented pack-
ages of sugar sorghum (Minnesota, Early Amber), and
three kinds of sugar maize, viz, Rosslyn’s Hybrid, How-
ell’s Evergreen, and Egyptian.
The thanks of the Society were accorded to Mr. Tinne.
Mr. Mann’s paper on Sugar Mills.—The Secretary
said he had received from Mr. James H. Mann a further
communication on the Sugar Cane Mill, and he stated in
an accompanying letter that he was sorry that owing to
continued ill-health he would be unable to attend the
meeting. It was agreed to take it as read at this meeting,
to publish it, and to discuss it at the next meeting.
190 TIMEHRI.
Donation.—The Secretary read the following letter
from Mr. Edmund Field, a former President of the So-
ciety :—
W. H. Campbell, Esq.,
Secretary, R. A. and C. Society,
Demerara.
Dear Sir,—I am sending by the Demerara and Berbice Steam-ship
Company’s vessel the Laura, a set of five engravings from the
painting by Frith, R. A., as a present to the R. A. and C. Society,
which, I trust the President and Directors of the Society will do me
the favour of accepting.
EDMUND FIELD.
Description of the Pictures.
A RACE FOR WEALTH,
I. The Spider and the Flies
(Ante-room of the great financier and projector’s office.)
IT. The Spider at Home.
(The time is the ‘‘ mauvais quart d’heure” before dinner.)
ITI. Victims.
(The bubble has burst. The blow has fallen !)
IV. Fudgment.
V. Retribution.
It was moved by the Chairman and carried by acclama-
tion that the best thanks of the Society be given to Mr.
Field for his valuable gift.
The meeting then terminated.
Mr. Mann’s second paper on the sugar-cane mill,
referred to above, was as follows:—
In continuation of the discussion on the above subject, | beg to submit
the following communication :
Mr. Russell in his paper read at the last meeting pays me a very poor
compliment in supposing that I fancy there is such a thing as a sugar
cane carrying as little percentage of fibre as the beet, and I am sure it
does not require experiments in quantitative analysis to teach one as
much as this. Iam the more surprised he should have criticised my
figures in the way he has done, because he ought to have known, that
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 19i
these, being all youwnd numbers, were vot actual examples of expréssion,
but mere illustrations of the proposed method of reckoning percentages.
I gave a mean and two extreme examples in each case; and had he
taken the other extreme he would have found another mare’s nest in
the fibre being excessive.
Neither do I tail to see the advantage of maceration and double
crushing, when under such circumstances ; and if I repeat my opinion
on this subject it is simply this ‘‘ we should be working to better
“advantage by paying attention to heavier simgle rather than to
“ double crushing &c.”
The other subjects under discussion are mere matters of opinion and
I may criticise Mr. Russell’s remarks pretty minutely.
The number of throwers, as he says, does bear approximately a
co-efficient ratio to the hhds. sugar made in given time; but this can
only be true when the quality of the crushing is a co-efficient also, for
in the “ good old days” of inferior crushing more men must have been
required than now, there being Jess juice extracted from the canes
thrown.
“The mill is set so as to pass the quantity of canes necessary to
‘““ make a given day’s work” surely this is misleading, as it gives one
the idea, a mill can do anything one chooses, whereas the power
available remains constant ; and although by increasing the feed, and
necessarily the set, we can increase number of gallons expressed in a
given time, yet this is achieved only at the expense of the quality of
«
crushing and so upsets the idea of a
ing
man’s power being a coefficient
necessary to throw canes for a hhd. sugar.”
To decide the day’s work first, is, I think, getting hold of the wrong
end of the stick ; we ought to decide what the quality of crushing shall
be and then get as much out of the engine as possible. On some
estates where the cultivation has been increased beyond the capacity of
the machinery, it may be advisable to work the other way and sacrifice
quality of crushing ; but it is not the machine which must be blamed
for its poor crushing; but rather the proprietor, for growing more
canes than the mill can take during the most favourable seasons.
Then again, if by setting up the front roller it is to be looked upon as
a kind of ‘ safety valve,” I would consider the mill not worth having
and will go so far as to say mills should not and (of modern type)
do not break under the strain due to a feed of canes alone.
Many of you no doubt think you have seen accidents of this sort, but
ig2 TIMEHRI.
who can say positively when a mill tumbles to pieces with nothing but
canes in her at the time, that nothing but canes had ever passed
through her before? Iam afraid a good deal more foreign matter does
pass through our mills than we have any idea of; pieces of iron,
accidentally or otherwise, often get into the mill and many small
things (such as cane-carrier nuts and the like) more often pass out
unobserved but not without sowing the seeds of subsequent trouble by
starting some minute fracture which, under continued strain, increases
and finally shows itself in a complete breakdown.
If one considers the enormous difference in the quality of the strains
when a mill crushes canes or iron, the awful rapidity in the increase of
the strain (and that local in its effect) when the square edge of a piece
of iron suddenly enters the grip of a mill, and remembers also the fact
that mills even under such trying ordeals do not always fail, it will not
be hard to concede to me the supposition that mills never do break with
an excessive feed alone, and that the effect of such can only be the
stoppage of the whole machine.
Mr. Russell considers that for the best results the front roller should
be made to do aconsiderable portion of the work, and in support of
this quotes the best single crushing he has seen where the front roller
is said to have been screwed up, (to the same proportionate extent
perhaps) to produce the superior crushing spoken of with a thinner
feed than usual!
If the back roller was originally what is called ‘‘ metal to metal,” it
could not of course be screwed up any more, but this will not alter my
argument ; for since the heavier the strain the more the mill yields, so
the actual opening when passing the light feed must be less than with
the heavy, and I look upon this mill as one in which the sets of the
front and back rollers probably bear the same ratio to each other as
they did before, and consider the additional power available (due to the
increased speed of engine) produced the extra quality of work and not
the change in the position of the front roller only.
If we do not take into account the power absorbed by a given weight
of canes, arguments about the set of rollers and depth of feed must go
for nothing. We can do what we will to the mill and alter the feed, but
if the power absorbed be not different we cannot expect any different
result.
The argument, again, about extracting more juice by screwing up the
front roller and so preventing the likelihood of re-absorption is, I think,
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 193
fallacious ; in the first place a great portion of the juice is supposed
to escape on the back roller side of the trash turner; and presum-
ing the space below the top roller is at all times pretty full of juice,
from the fact of its finding its way down the inside of each head-
stock as well as over the top of the front roller, the opportunity for
reabsorption is practically the same whatever be the set of the front.
I might here point out what is a decided defect in the construc-
tion of our mills; there is no escape for the juice along the front
edge of the trash turner; the space between it and the back roller
can be of little use either, since it is always covered by the passing
megass, therefore the juice must try to escape at the ends of the
trash turner, where it is also impeded by the side blocks. If then it
cannot find sufficient exit it will find the space between the top
roller and the trash turner and, by accumulation, rise until it flows
freely over the front roller. It has however the same tendency to
flow over the back roller; there being a hydrostatic pressure up-
wards at the point where the canes are under maximum compres-
sion, the juice naturally avails itself of every opportunity to pass
through any gaps or space there may be, and so come in contact
with megass just relieved from pressure and ready to reabsorb any
quantity of juice; the obvious remedy is to keep the back roller
somewhat higher than the front, so that the juice finding free exit
over the latter shall not have the tendency to rise into the megass.
I believe, moreover, that a mill so constructed would show a marked
improvement in the percentage of expression.
In the case of a large mill having its rollers set in the same
proportion as those of a small mill, but wider, there can be no
difference in the treatment of the canes, provided the depth of
feed in each be also proportionate to their sets; so, I cannot see
why a big mill should not do the same quantity of work as a
small one. The real reason why large mills do not do so well as
some small ones is, that too much is expected of them; or rather
the mills being in size more than their engines, the power avail-
able per ton of canes is less in the large than in the small mills.
Any one can verify this by making a few calculations from mills
under his own observation, if the power available be divided by
the work expected of the mill, i.e., due to her size, we shall get a
figure representing the comparative crushing power of each. In other
Zz
194. TIMEHRI.
words divide the area of the piston by the size of the mill. Here are
three examples :
CYL. MILL. CRUSHING-ROOM.
: we ” ” Area 203 .
Hoff van Aurich............ 20% 26" x 54 ee A ee OS
26 x 54
Area 24
Anna Regina.............6... 24” 2” x 66” — ="21
nna Regina 4: 3 6 one 4
BauAG : 3” Hi Area 30
e DEER ae on oe ccan ie es 30 48” x 84 48x 84 = "07/5
It thus appears that there is less proportionate power in the larger
arrangements.
It is assumed for simplicity of calculation that the conditions as to
piston speed, steam pressure &c., are the same in all; results can of
course be altered by varying these conditions, but when mills are fed in
proportion to their size, differences in the quality of work done will
always be apparent as exemplified by the above figures.
At the same meeting the trash turner was spoken of, and some one
asked the cause of such terrible jerking and noise that sometimes takes
place ; in my paper under discussion I stated my opinion pretty plainly
that trash turners were often wrongly blamed, and that the cause of the
jerking was the refusing of canes, due to smoothness of the rollers and
insufficient grip. 1 will now enlarge upon this subject by giving further
arguments in support of my reasonings.
If the cause be the position of the trash turner, why does not the
jerking go on continuously until the trash turner be moved? And as the
jerking only occurs at intervals, I say the trash turner is not the fault,
although I admit the possibility of a badly set trash turner; the same
negative argument applied to the grip of the rollers will not prove the
latter not to be at fault because the grip is more perfect in some posi-
tion of the rollers than in others, it being impossible to ensure unifor-
mity in the roughing all over. It is the fact of the rollers being smoother
at some places than others, combined with the varying thickness of the
feed that causes the grip between the back and top rollers to fail occa-
sionally, when the rollers, as it were, continue to nibble at the canes
until a rougher portion of the roller comes round and a hold is again
effected.
The noise is no doubt occasioned by two circumstances ; this nibbling
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 195
which is a very heavy process, for the canes after nearly getting under
maximum compression slip back with a jerk, and then there is the
consequent accumulation of half crushed canes between the trash turner
and the top rollers.
When watching a large mill when she was giving trouble by refusing
canes I noticed that when the jerking and noise lasted but a second or
so the continuity in the wad of megass was not apparently broken, but
when it continued for some appreciable time ,the mill passed out no
megass at all. One end of the rollers would take up the grip then
the other, passing out its megass at different points at different times.
Theear could also detect the direction from whence the noise proceeded,
whether from this end or that, according to where the rollers were refus-
ing. This, to my mind, clearly proves where the fault exists, and I can-
not believe a small change in the position of the trash turner can effect
improvements with which it is so often credited. When a manager
insists upon having his trash turner re-set he usually utilizes the time
by jagging the rollers and then says the trash turner has improved the
working of the mill !
Here is another negative proof that the set of a trash turner is
of little moment and that there is no real proportion between the set
and the depth of feed (within certain absurd limits of course)—take a
mill, in which, according to experts on trash turners, the set is cor-
rectly proportioned to the ordinary feed, what becomes of this propor-
tion when the feed varies ? Why does not the mill refuse and jerk with
a lighter or with a heavier feed when this proportion is so entirely
different ? and yet we have mills that continue to work smoothly what-
ever be the feed.
It may be as well to state that I use the word “‘ set” as a technical term
applied to the trash turner, meaning the distance between it and the top
roller, and not the position generally. When the trash turner is re-set
you raise or lower it and do not assign a new position for it relative to
the front roller, its absolute proximity to the latter being a necessary
condition as much as screwing up the piston rings before turning on
steam.
Mr. Russell is reported to have said that the jerking and noise was
when the trash got crimped up on the trash turner, and that raising the
latter would obviate the evil. Now, after what had been written I fancy
some of you will agree with me (1) that Mr. Russell has got hold of the
effect not the cayse. The megass gets crimped up because the rollers
Z 2
196 TIMEHRI.
refuse to remove it, and (2) that removing the trash turner cannot sup-
ply the deficiency in the power of grip between the rollers.
This brings me to the end of a second paper on this interesting sub-
ject, and I crave the indulgence of my readers to repeat some of my
opinions in a concise form ; insufficiency of grip is the cause of nearly
all the troubles in connection with the working of a sugar mill—rollers
possessing roughness, in one form or another, sufficient for the grip,
are absolutely necessary to ensure uniformity in the crushing ;—rollers
of inferior metal must have their grip maintained in, what might be
called, an artificial manner by continued labour bestowed upon them on
the estates—and this rough process is no longer necessary when once
the rollers are made of superior metal with grooves cut in them having
right-angled edges.
JAMES H. MANN.
Demerara, 2nd April, 1883.
————
Meeting held roth May—The Honourable W. Rus-
sell, President, in the chair.
There were 11 members present.
Election —Member: Jacob Conrad
Associate: W. Palmer Samborne.
‘Representation of British Guiana at the Calcutta
Exhibition——The Secretary read a _ letter from the
hon. B. Howell Jones, intimating that he had been ap-
pointed a member of a Committee of Court of Policy to
consider whether this colony should be represented at the
Calcutta Exhibition, and enclosing several documents.
Mr. Jones further stated in his letter that the Committee
would be glad to confer with a Committee of members
of the Agricultural Society with regard to the matter.
Mr. Campbell said the other documents were letters
from Mr. Barr to the Government Secretary, stating that
Mr. Hogg thought it was desirable that the colony
should be represented, and the official documents of
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 197
the Exhibition, giving all information. The Society was
generally asked to take matters of this sort up by the
Government, and a committee was then appointed
of the members of this Society to undertake the arrange-
ments and to administer any funds that might be contri-
buted for the purpose; but at present the Society had no
funds for that purpose. He had had no further commu-
nication in the matter than Mr. Jones’s letter stating that
a committee had been appointed by the Court of Policy.
The Chairman thought that the documents ought to
have been accompanied by some letter from the Govy-
ernment.
Mr. Jones said he had been appointed along with the
hons. Robert Mitchell and Hugh Sproston, on a Com-
mittee of the Court of Policy, to confer with the Royal
Agricultural Society, as to whether British Guiana should
be represented at the Exhibition. He had liberty to
bring the documents before the Society, and he did not
think there was any necessity for further formalities.
The Chairman believed that there were very few in this
colony who thought it should not be represented at the
Calcutta Exhibition ; but, as the Secretary had stated,
they had no funds for that purpose, and without assist-
ance from the Government they could do nothing.
The Chairman suggested that Messrs. J. E. Tinne,
Luke M. Hill, and the Rev. T. J. Moulder form a com-
mittee to confer with the committee of the Court of Policy
and should report to the Society at its next meeting.
Mr. Campbell, on behalf of Mr. Glaisher, intimated that
that gentleman’s services would be available to prepare
and forward articles to the Exhibition.
Colonial India Rubber.—The Secretary submitted a
198 TIMEHRI.
letter from Mr. G. S. Jenman on certain samples of
the India-Rubber (vulcanised) produced by the hatie
(Hevea Spruceana) and cumakaballi (tepong) trees of
this colony.
On the suggestion of the Chairman, it was agreed that
it should be published. He thought it was always desir-
able to have these things published, as it afforded mem-
bers an opportunity of going into details in technical
questions.
Thanks were voted to Mr. Jenman for his communi-
cation.
Authority of the Secretary to print Communications.
—Mr. Luke M. Hill suggested that the Secretary should
have authority to print such papers, as this of Mr. Jen-
man’s as soon as he received them. As they were at
present brought before the Society, they were generally
ordered to be printed ; after which they did not gene-
rally come up for discussion for about two months.
The Chairman said that was a very good suggestion.
Some discretionary power should, however, be given to
the Secretary, as he might be flooded with papers ; it
might become an advertising medium.
A committee consisting of the President, the Vice-
president, and the Secretary, was empowered to print
papers.
Sorghum and Mazze.—lt was agreed to send portions
of the seeds of sorghum and maize presented by Mr.
Tinne to the Society at its previous meeting to Mr.
Blake of Pln. Ske/don and Mr. Luard of Pln. Peter's
Hall, with a request that the seeds should be planted
and a report on the results be submitted.
The Curator’s Report.—\t was ordered that the report
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 199
by Mr. Glaisher, the new Curator of the Museum, should
be printed and brought forward at the next meeting ;
also that it should be carefully considered by the Com-
mittee of Correspondence.
Local Cocoa-nut fibre and Palm-oil.—The Hon'ble B.
Howell Jones submitted samples of cocoanut fibre
dressed at Mr. Smith’s factory at Mahaicony. This was
one of the small industries of the colony, and one in which
he (Mr. Jones) was rather interested. The first sample
was the ordinary fibre used for the ordinary purposes,
and the second was for brush making. These were
not exhibition samples. He also wished to submit
a bottle of what was known as palm-nut oil, obtained
from the Courze* palm. He had obtained it from a
black man in the Berbice River District, who used it
for culinary purposes, but it might perhaps be of value
as an article of commerce. He might mention that
this was the palm-nut oil mentioned ina report by Mr.
Jenman; if there was anything valuable in it, it could
be procured in large quantities for export if desired, the
palm being very abundant.
The Chairman said that no doubt the specimens were
very interesting. He was aware that Mr. Smith had
imported some very fine machinery for making cocoanut
oil and dressing the fibre, and he thought Mr. Smith
deserved great credit indeed, for that advance in what
might be called one of our small industries. He had not
the slightest doubt that it would pay. Formerly, when
cocoanuts cost 820 or $24 per thousand, it did not pay
* The Courie palm is probably the African oil-palm (Eleis Guinien-
sis) which has become naturalized in many parts of the colony; or, it
is perhaps more probably the Kokerite (Maximiliana regia),—Ep.
200 TIMEHRI.
to make cocoanut oil, but it was different now, when
they only cost $12 per thousand.
It was suggested and ordered that the palm oil be
forwarded to Mr. Francis, with a request to that gentle-
man to report on it.
Mr. Mann's Paper on the Sugar-mill.—The Chair-
man said he had read Mr. Mann’s paper, but had not had
time to give it much consideration. Mr. Mann had found
fault with his (the chairman’s) estimate that co-efficient
man power was equal to a given quantity of sugar per
day. He (the chairman) said that it was the assumption
of many of the planters that it required a man to make
a hogshead of sugar per day. He could only say that if
Mr. Mann had served his apprenticeship under such
planters as Mr. McLaren and Mr. James Stuart, he would
have been told that he had to make acertain quantity of
sugar a week; and he would then have to make his mill
do the best he could. At the same time, he thought Mr.
Mann deserved the thanks of the Society for the way in
which ke had come forward and given his opinion on
this matter.
Donations.—Lithographic fac-similes of the execution
warrants of Charles I and Mary Queen of Scots were
submitted, and the donor (Mr. B. S. Bayley) was award-
ed the thanks of the Society.
The meeting then terminated.
Mr. Jenman’s letter on India-Rubber, to which refer-
ence is made above, is at follows :—
Georgetown, 27th April, 1883.
My dear Sir,—I enclose herewith, for the Museum of the Royal
Agricultural and Commercial Society, samples (vulcanised) of india-
REPORT OF SOCIETV’S MEETINGS. 201
rubber, produced respectively by the hatie and cumakaballi of this
colony. The raw rubber from which these samples were manufactured
I collected on the Pomeroon River, and sent to Kew to be tested a few
months ago; which resulted (with other correspondence) in the follow-
ing report, communicated through the Secretary of State for the
colonies and published in the Official Gazette of the 18th instant :—
“The India Rubber made on the Pomeroon River, British Guiana,
“from the Hevea Spruceana contains caoutchouc but is impregnated
‘with other principles which destroy its properties for any manufac-
“turing purposes involving the process of vulcanizing. Since most of
‘the species of Hevea have been described as yielding good India-
“ rubber, including the Hevea Spruceana growing several miles north of
‘the Amazon, it would be important to determine whether in this case
“the deteriorating principles are foreign [? belonging] to the tree, or
“‘ whether they arise from injudicious incision. The rubber smells very
“strongly of the oily matter which goes off in the smoke from the
‘burning of the nuts of the Uracappi palm, which also has the effect of
“softening and rendering the rubber dark.”
“‘ The loss on washing and drying is 11°75 o/o. The soft and sticky
‘* character would appear to be due to a volatile, or perhaps easily car-
‘bonised substance. When mixed with sulphur and submitted to the
“ vulcanizing process, it vulcanizes, but becomes spongy. The caout-
“‘ chouc vulcanizes so completely, that it would be worth while to try
‘‘ whether, by any chemical treatment, its sponginess can be prevented.
‘* Such treatment, however, prevents its being used extensively.”
“The (cumakaballi) India-rubber on washing and drying yields a
“loss of 14°96 o/o, and when mixed with the suitable proportion of
“ sulphur, vulcanizes perfectly. Its firmness and freedom from sticki-
“ness are in favour of its manipulation”
The passage in the report,-—‘‘it would be important to determine
‘““ whether in this case the deteriorating principles are foreign to the
“tree, or whether they arise from injudicious incision,’ is not very
clear in its meaning. Injudicious incision, so far as it affected the
character of the milk, would be “‘ foreign” to the tree; but I do not see
how any method of tapping could be injudicious in this sense. In col-
lecting thisrubber, the incisions were made witha cutlass; and an axe or
this instrument must necessarily be used in the operation. It is true
the juice was dried in the smoke of burning palm nuts, but this system
is very largely practised in coagulating Para india-rubber. It hastens
AA
202 TIMEHRI.
the process, but is not essential, and need not be pursued if disadvan-
tage pertains to it.
It is disappointing, however, that as Hevea Spruceana is so abundant
in the colony, and such a near ally botanically of the valuable Hevea
bvasilensis, its rubber should be, apparently, of such inferior quality.
I say, apparently advisedly, for I think this cannot be regarded as de-
termined till the nature of the deleterious principle, which prevents its
perfect induration when vulcanized, is ascertained, and whether it was
accidental in this sample or is inherent in the juice of this species of
Hevea. It is possible, too, that if the sponginess cannot be prevented in
its manufacture, considering the multiplicity of the applications which
are being found for india-rubber, certain uses may be discovered for
which this character will specially recommend it; which seems not
improbable, for it is certainly a very peculiar and characteristic sub-
stance.
As [ anticipated in my report of the discovery of the cumakaballi,
its rubber has proved to be an excellent material ; and considering the
great size of the tree, its thickness of bark and prolificness in milk, the
price (2/3—2/6 per lb.) it is estimated as worth in the market is
very satisfactory and encouraging; and I have no doubt that in the
future both the tree and the rubber which it yields will be in considera-
- ble demand. I hope in the interval, steps may be taken to prevent col-
lectors from felling and destroying a tree so valuable, and of so much
interest for its grand proportions as a woodland feature, and thus
ensure its abundant perpetuity in the colony.
Very faithfully yours,
G. S. JENMAN.
W. H. CampBeELL, Esq.,
Secretary, Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society.
Mr. Glaisher’s Report on the present state and pros-
pects of the Museum, to which reference is made above,
is as follows :—
Report of Curator of British Guiana Museum.
To the Directors of the Royal Agricultural and Com-
mercial Society.
Sirs,—l beg to submit to you the following Report on the British
Guiana Museum as I found it, on commencing my duties as Curator.
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 203
I have also added my views on the work which I think it would be
desirable to do in connection with my office.
The arrangement of the Museum as it now stands, with some slight
modification, is very suitable. It is divided into two portions, one of
which is devoted to showing the Natural History and Products of this
colony, the other to extra-colonial exhibits. There are two objects to
be obtained, 1st: to have a collection which will be instructive to our
Colonial Population, and 2nd: one which will illustrate the Natural
History and Products of this Colony, and therefore be of special
interest to visitors to this country, who from a cursory inspection of the
Museum will be able to obtain a good idea of our Colonial Fauna and
products. To meet these two views it is desirable that both the Colonial
and Foreign departments be kept up; but as the economising of space
is a matter of the greatest importance, I venture to urge, as suggested
by my predecessor, that in the Natural History Collection only types
be exhibited, a more complete collection of skins being kept in properly
constructed drawers. ‘This, it seems, would very fairly meet the exigen-
cies of the case, a glance would give a general idea of the classes of
animals etc. to be met with in this colony; and if further information
was desired, the larger and more complete collection preserved in
drawers could be consulted.
The present arrangements of the birds and mammals in the cases is
not so satisfactory asit might be. The specimens are placed on three
flat shelves, one above the other ; the result of this is, that those which
are placed on the lower shelf, situated only an inch or so from the floor,
are almost hidden from view, with the exception of a few close to the
glass ; the specimens on the top shelf are scarcely in a better position.
To remedy this I propose to erect an inclined stage of shelves such as
is used to display the birds in the British Museum ; the cost of each of
these stages would be $20, and I feel sure that the great advantage to
be derived from such an arrangement would well compensate for the
comparatively small outlay required.
The fish of the Colony are not well represented. Out of 600 species
known to exist in our rivers only about 50 are in the Museum. A com-
plete collection preserved in spirits would be of great value, and I hope
to be able to add largely to the present stock of specimens, by collect-
ing myself from time to time, and by contributions from various sources.
There are several small cases of plaister casts of fishes which are very
creditably executed, and which to the ordinary visitor are of much more
AA 2
204 TIMEHRI.
interest than specimens preserved in spirits ; it would be well to obtain
more of these casts, if they could be procured at something like a rea-
sonable cost.
One of the greatest difficulties to be overcome is the setting up and
mounting of specimens; the work done by colonial stuffers is very ex-
pensive, and, as is only too painfully shown by a glance round the
Museum, thoroughly bad and unnatural. One solution of the difficulty
suggests itself to me, that is, to make arrangements with a London
taxidermist to mount and set up at a fixed and reasonable rate any
specimens which may be sent to him; the benefit that would accrue
to the Museum would be great and in the end it would be found no
more expensive than having the work done by the indifferent stuffers
here.
The Museum possesses two good collections, both of which are very
complete, I refer to the very fine Mineralogical and Geological collec-
tion presented by Mr. Barrington Brown and the case of local Ethnolo-
gical specimens presented by Mr.im Thurn. It is matter for congra-
tulation that we possess them. There is also a very fair collection of
shells which fully deserves to be placed in a separate cabinet.
A Catalogue should as speedily as possible be issued. My pre-
decessor did a great portion of this work, and I propose to finish
it as rapidly asI can. To get a thoroughly complete Catalogue would
take a long time, as some of the specimens would have to be referred
to specialists at home in order to settle their respective species. I
therefore recommend, as has been previously proposed, that a first,
though somewhat imperfect edition of the Catalogue, be quickly and
cheaply printed, and afterwards, when all the doubtful species have been
named, that an amended edition be issued.
The British Museum authorities keep a list of institutions in England
and the Colonies to which they give their spare Zoological specimens.
It would be desirable that this Museum should be added to that list, and
I have little doubt if the Society showed a disposition to help the
British Museum by presenting to it some of the duplicate specimens
which are not required, Dr. Gunther, the head of the Biological De-
partment would bring the matter before the Trustees, and the British
Guiana Museum would be added to that list. This Museum would not
only benefit by receiving specimens from time to time, but would also
obtain the British Museum publications which are of considerable value.
There is an important work which it would be desirable to commence
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 205
as'soon as possible, viz:—the establishing of Meteorological Stations
over the Colony. There are already instances of colonies situated
within the Tropics recognising the importance of this work. Ceylon
has a Meteorological organization consisting of 26 stations, which send
in monthly and weekly returns. Mauritius has a Meteorological and
Magnetical Observatory supported by the Colony; at Hong Kong
Meteorological observations are made in connection with its Astronomi-
cal Observatory, and there are several other stations over our Indian
Empire. From the position of this colony, situated on the mainland of
South America within 5 or 6 degrees of the equator, observations taken
here would be of considerable importance. Apart from the mere scien-
tific value that these records would have, considerable advantage would
doubtless be obtained by combining their results with the health statistics
of the Colony. I know also that the results of observations taken here
would be valued and gladly received by scientific men in Europe.
The system that I should propose would be as follows: To establish
three first class stations where Atmospheric Pressure, Temperature,
Humidity, Rainfall and Radiation are observed ; and in addition to these
to obtain as many temperature and rainfall stations as I can procure:
I.am willing to undertake the labour of reducing and preparing the
results from the returns sent in, and to generally superintend the whole
organization. The outlay would be small; it certainly would not ex-
ceed £30.
Other useful scientific work could with great advantage be carried on
in connection with my office. At some future time, it would be probably
worth while to erect a small Transit instrument in order to obtain the
absolute time of the colony. It would also be an advantage to havea
Seismometer for registering Earthquake shocks; for no doubt some
shocks pass unnoticed, and it is impossible to give any useful scientific
information about the shocks which are perceived without having such
an instrument. These instruments would not cost a very large amount,
and might be added to the Museum appliances when I have better
assistance than I have at present at my command.
I have the honor to be, Sirs,
Your obedient Servant,
ERNEST H. GLAISHER,
Curator.
British Guiana Museum,
May oth 1883.
206 TIMEHRI.
Meeting held rath Fune.—The Honorable W. Russell,
President, in the chair.
There were 14 members present.
Elections.—MWembers: R. B. O. Butts; W. A. Grant ;
Allen C. Stewart; William Charles Easten Griffith.
Associates: Howard T. King; Colin Sim-
son Smith; R. T. Wright; Frank Gill; James Brown.
The Calcutta Exhibition.—The following letter from
the Government Secretary was read.
Government-Secretary’s Office,
Georgetown, Demerara,
st June, 1883.
Sir,—I have the honor by direction of the Governor to acquaint you,
for the information of the Agricultural and Commercial Society, that it
has been decided that British Guiana shall be represented at the Inter-
national Exhibition to be held at Calcutta in December.
2. The Governor proposes to appoint Mr. Henry Kirke, M.A., acting
Emigration Agent for this colony at Calcutta, to be the Commissioner
at the Exhibition for British Guiana, and as the Governor has been
given to understand that the Royal Agricultural and Commercial
Society will undertake upon this occasion, as on former similar occa-
sions, the management of affairs in connection with the Exhibition, I
am to state that it will afford His Excellency much satisfaction if the
Society will do so, and will appoint a committee for the purpose accord-
ingly. The Governor and Court of Policy have placed an item of two
thousand dollars on the supplementary estimates to defray the expenses
connected with the exhibition.
W. H. Campbell, Esq.,
Secretary to the Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society.
The Chairman proposed, and it was agreed, that the
matter be referred to the Committee of Correspondence.
He need hardly impress upon the members of the Society
the desirability of putting in an appearance at the exhibi-
tion at Calcutta. He urged upon the members of the
Society to do everything in their power to forward
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 207
exhibits to Calcutta, so as to bring the colony and its
mode of tilling the land, vividly before the people of
Calcutta.
Mr. Tinne, in reference to a question as to whether
the exhibits would go by next coolie ship, said he thought
it would be very undesirable to send the exhibits by a
coolie ship, after the long passage of 180 days of the
Bayard. We thought it would be far better to send them
to I.ondon by the “ Direct Line” steamer and then tran-
ship them to a steamer going to Calcutta; the exhibits
would thus be transferred to Calcutta in forty-five days,
including transhipment.
The Curator’s Report.—This report which had been
laid before the Society at the previous meeting and had
since been printed and circulated, was also referred to
the Committee of Correspondence, to take action on
the same.
Surinam Gold.—Mr. G. L. Davson, on behalf of Mr,
Hugh A. Greene, exhibited a nugget of gold from Suri-
nam, valued at 81100. The Chairman, commenting on
this excellent find from Dutch Guiana, remarked that it
was about equal in value to about eleven hogsheads of
sugar; he added that he was informed that the Com-
pany who had discovered this nugget had spent three or
four thousand pounds before getting any return, but
that a good deposit had now been struck. It was stated
by a gentleman present that the Company was now
making a very high per-centage on their outlay.
Mr. Fenman’s Report on Indta-rubber.—lIn the ab-
sence of Mr. Jenman, in consequence of ill-health, this
subject was postponed to the next meeting. |
“* The Tropical Agriculturist.”—On the suggestion
208 TIMEHRI.
of the Secretary. it was ordered that this journal, pub-
lished in Ceylon, should be taken in by the Society.
The Hour of Meeting.—On the suggestion of the Secre-
tary, it was ordered that the meetings of the Society
should in future be held at 3.30 p.m., instead of 4 p.m.,
on the second Thursday in each month.
The Mahaicony Oil and Fibre Works.—A paper was
read by the Honourable B. Howell Jones on the cocoanut
oil and fibre works recently established by Mr. Smith
at Mahaicony. Before doing so, he stated that his paper
did not give full details, such as the cost of making the
articles, because the whole factory was not at present
working, and it would be misleading to attempt it. It
was simply the account of a visit to the factory.*
The Chairman said he followed Mr. Jones’s paper with
very great interest, because twenty years ago, in the
Island of Wakenaam, an exactly similar factory was
started. In those days cocoanuts fetched very high
prices—$22 to $24 per thousand; and at that time the
production of oil from cocoanuts did not pay. There was
a considerable loss of money. Mr. Smith was fortunate
now in obtaining the cocoanuts; he (the Chairman) be-
lieved they could be procured at $10 to $12 a thousand.
The difference between $10 to $12 and $22 to S24,
which was formerly paid for the cocoa-nuts would allow
a large margin for profit on what they might call one of
the smaller industries of the colony, and he had little
doubt that Mr. Smith had struck upon a very profitable
means of disposing of his cocoanuts. He (the Chairman)
* This paper, having come to hand too late for insertion in the pre-
sent number, will appear in the next.— Ep.
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 209
believed that there was a much larger quantity of cocoa-
nut oil produced in this colony than probably members
were aware of. The coolies were in the habit of making
oil in their own rude way in India, and after serving
their time on the estate, a great many of them take
to manufacturing oil here. He was told that at the pre-
sent time the coolies who manufacture oil were prepared
to pay even a higher price for cocoanuts than was got
before the starting of this manufactory. He merely
mentioned this to show that the coolies after serving
their time on the estates had an opportunity of doing
something else than merely working in the field. He
quite agreed that it was to the introduction of these
people, who came here with a knowledge of what are
known as the smaller industries in their own country,
that they must look for the successful carrying out of the
same line in this colony. He thought the members of
the Society were very much indebted to Mr. Jones for
the excellent paper which he had read, and he moved
that it should appear in the Society’s Journal. In the
meantime he begged to move that the thanks of the
meeting be awarded to Mr. Jones.
The motion was carried with acclamation.
A member mentioned that as soon as Mr. Smith started
his manufactory, cocoanuts had gone up $2; Mr. Smith
was giving $13 per thousand.
Mr. Jones said that this industry was jealously guarded.
In London there were five factories, all in the hands of
Jews, and when Mr. Smith was in London he was refused
admission to witness any of these factories. He thought
that the oil extracted here could compete with that from
factories which had to pay freight on the cocoanuts.
BB
210 TIMEHRI.
Donations.—The Secretary said the following publica-
tions had been presented to the Society :—
By the Smithsonian Institution—“ Report of the Com-
“missioner of Agriculture for 1880-81-82;” “ List of
“ Foreign correspondents of the Smithsonian Institution ;”
“Scientific proceedings of the Ohio Mechanics’ Institute ;”
“‘ Additions and corrections of the list of Foreign Corres-
“pondents to January 1883;”
By Captain Sparks, ‘‘ Monthly Weather Review of the
“ United States from January to November, 1882.”
The President, after alluding to the excellence and
completeness of the United States Agricultural Reports,
expressed a wish and a hope that a statistical department
might be established in this colony.
The meeting then terminated.
TIM ERAT
Journal of the Royal A gricultural and sonnel ‘
cial Society of British Guiana, ;
EDITED BY
EVERARD F. IM ‘THURN, M.A., of Exeter College, Oxford.
+ —<—>- +
Published Half-Yearly..........[June & December.]
PRICE: |
othe syear coe Lae nae Oe canes
For each Part Meats ge 1 ss eae 96 (4/)
Amongst the Papers in PE jor this eo are the
following :— |
Tatoo-marks of the Indians of British | Balata-collecting. :
Guiana. Essequibo, Berbice and Demerara under
\ Notes on West Indian Stone-Implements | the Dutch (continued.)
d (continued.) River Flora.
; A List of Plants of the Kaieteur Savan- | Comparative Vocabulary of Indian Lan-
nah, guages,
A Bibliography of Guiana. Water-Supply for Estates and Town.
The Berbice River. Rum-making,
The Treatment of Murder among the | Coffee Cultivation.
he Aborigines. . A Hand-list of Plants reported from Bri-
"Treatment of Immigrants of Various| tish Guiana. "
Races. Yellow Fever.
The Shell-mounds of Guiana. Bush-notes of a Huntsman. #
Notes on the Palms of Guiana, Between the Pomeroon and the Ovnadte if
Historical Memoranda on the Boundary | Rock Sculptures. ae
of Berbice. | The Oil and Fibre Works at Mahaicony. &
And many other Agricultural Papers.
London Agent: EH, Stanford, Charing Cross, §.W.
PRINTED AT THE ‘fARGOSY” PRLSS, DEMERARA
vf or griquitural and ‘eal
Hovil of pra ish =
DECEMBER, 1883. (PART He
CONTENTS. | — 7
_ Papers, —Between the Pomeroon and the oe by the tag
inter ; Ou Colonial aes ve Loy ae A Chapters im
e Life-History of a Plant, by G. S. Jenman; Lamaha Water and
Process for Purifying it, by E. E. H. Francis ; Essequibo, Ber-
e and Demerara under the Dutch, Part 2, by the Editor. a
OccasionaL Notes.—An Accawot Peaiman; Local Medicinal
Birks ; Couvade ; Etymology of the word “ Grail-stick” Fae ae
7 tion” by Snakes; The Barbarian View of Guiana; New
_ Lowl Literature; A New Plant from Guiana; Dutch Guiana
the Amsterdam Exhibition ; The Representation of the Colony
Eshibitions ; Errata.
Wiliam Hunter Campbell, L.L.D. IN MEMORIAM. 2
ER)RT OF SOCIETY'S MEETINGS, from July to December
=
Between the Pomeroon and the Orinoco.
By the Editor.
SVBIESS known than any other part of British |
Guiana, less known by far than the distriét
@] more remote from civilization, in point of
mileage, which lies on the borders of the Brazils, is
the distri€t between the Pomeroon river and the Orin-
oco. The SCHOMBURGK brothers, who travelled in,
and have written most of, the interior of British Gui-
ana, went but little into this distriێ\; and, examining
only the lower courses of its rivers, they described it far
more briefly and less satisfa€torily than any other part.
And such information of it as they did publish is more
or less unknown, being partly buried in a large, some-
what scarce, and expensive book in a foreign language,
being partly removed from easy access in the early
volumes of the Geographical Society’s publications. And
of those who have more recently travelled m, and written
of, Guiana the most important, Mr. BARRINGTON BROWN,
paid a yet briefer and more hurried visit than that of
the SCHOMBURGKS to the distri€t in question; and he
has described it in correspondingly brief fashion in
the technical and little read official report which he
wrote in conjunction with his sometime colleague, the
late Mr. JAMES SAWKINS, and has not even noticed it in
his more widely circulated and popular ‘Canoe and
Camp Life in British Guiana.’ Yet this distriét is of
interest, partly because it is chiefly as regards it, claimed
by both the British and the Venezuelan Governments,
that a movement has from time to time during the last
cc
i
212 TIMEHRI.
forty years been afoot, and is now once more afoot, to
settle definitely the ownership; and partly because, in
all human probability, this distriét, and this alone, is
exaétly in a natural state, is exa€tly as once was the now
inhabited coast-land between the Essequibo and the
Corentyn before the Dutch drained this, and cultivated it,
and altered it, in most wonderful manner, to the condi-
tion, more or less, in which we now know it.
Looking at the desolate coast-land between the Pome-
roon and the Orinoco, and trying to realise that as this
is so the whole coast of Guiana once was, one cannot
help wondering at the glowing description of the country
given by Sir WALTER RALEIGH and other early visitors,
one cannot help wondering at the courage and energy
of those early Dutch colonists who made their homes in
such desolate wastes. But this feeling of wonder, if not
altogether removed, is certainly much lessened when
one recalls the faéts that RALEIGH not only saw such
desolate coast-regions as these but that he also pene-
trated up the rivers into the higher and more beautiful
country ; and that it was up the rivers, on those same
higher lands, that the earlier colonists first settled, and
that it was only at a later time, when they were firmly
established, that, recognizing the superior fertility of the
coast-lands, ugly as these were, and remembering what
their ancestors had done in the swamps, in some respects
not dissimilar, of the Netherlands, they found courage
to make dams to ward off the sea and made their homes
where but just before were uninhabitable swamps. /
Before proceeding further it may be as well roughly
to define the distriét to be described. The northernmost
of the fairly well-known and settled rivers of Guiana
BETWEEN THE POMEROON AND THE ORINOCO. 213
is the Pomeroon. This river may therefore be regarded
as the southern boundary of the distriét to be described.
Coasting in a north-westerly direction from the mouth
of the Pomeroon, one passes successively the mouths of
the Morooka, the Waini and the Barima and comes at
last to the mouth of the Amakooroo, a river which
discharges itself into one of the mouths of the Orinoco,
opposite to the island of Congrévo, on which now live
the Venezuelan pilots who convey all vessels which pass
up that channel of the Orinoco to the city of Bolivar.
The boundary of British Guiana in this direétion has
never been settled ; and much of the land, in accordance
with a temporary agreement between the British and
Venezuelan governments, is regarded as neutral. But in
most maps, at any rate in most English maps, the
Amakooroo is treated as the northernmost boundary of
British Guiana; and it will, therefore, serve also as the
northernmost boundary of our distriét. Taking the Am-
akooroo and the Pomeroon as the northern and southern
boundaries, it is still necessary to find a boundary on the
west. But to do this is very difficult, the country in that
dire€tion being hardly known. Yet without here assum-
ing anything definite as to the a€tual boundary of British
Guiana, we may, to fix a boundary for the distriét to
be described, follow the line as laid down by Sir ROBERT
SCHOMBURGK and the English map-makers up the course
of the Amakooroo and from the point at which it leaves
that river to the first falls on the Barima. From there,
leaving SCHOMBURGK’S boundary, we must take a
straight line to the first falls on the Waini, and from
these again a straight line to the head of the Pomeroon,
(which has, however, never been visited).
CC 2
214 TIMEHRI.
The first physical feature to be noted in this distriét
is that it is somewhat distinétly marked out by nature
into two tra€ts, parallel to each other and to the sea.
Of these, the one nearer the coast, of which the land
hardly rises anywhere, and then only for a few feet,
above the level of the sea, is really rather swamp than
land, and is covered, in the neighbourhood of the in-
numerable rivers and creeks, by a dense growth of
mangroves (Rhizophora mangale), varied in the neigh-
bourhood of the sea by a few courida trees (Avicennia
nitida;, and everywhere else by a rank mud-loving vege-
tation consisting chiefly of two kinds of palms, the
troolie (Manicaria saccifera) and the manicole (Euw-
terpe edulis). One may pass day after day along the
rivers and creeks of this tra€t seeing perhaps no human
being, or perhaps passing at most one or two canoes
with an Indian or two in each. Hidden up some of the
smaller creeks there are a few square yards of higher
ground, on which perhaps a few Warrau Indians live ;
but there is little to draw these people from their se-
cluded haunts out on to the main river, except occasion-
ally when they pass down to the fishing grounds at the
mouths of the rivers to catch maracots (Pacu sp?) or
crabs. Elsewhere all is pure swamp; and there is no
place on which to stand unless on the many and
entangled, over-ground, or rather over-water, roots of
the mangroves and other trees. Nowhere but in a few
far-scattered mud-holes at the heads of the creeks is any
water not at least brackish to be found; and such water
as is in these is foul, to sight and taste, with mud. And
the water of the rivers themselves is thick and clammy
with exudations from the mangrove-roots, and the air is
BETWEEN THE POMEROON AND THE ORINOCO. 215
heavy and sickening owing to the smell of the same, so
suggestive of decay. It is, in short, a desolate place
hardly fitted for any living thing but musquitoes.
This traét, varying much in breadth, extends on an
average for from 30 to 40 miles from the coast.
Beyond that lies the second traét. Here the land is
everywhere raised a few feet above the level of the sea,
and not unfrequently, especially further inland, it rises in
detached hills of from 30 to 40 or even 60 feet in height.
Just as the mangrove is the charaéteristic plant—the
physiognomic plant, HUMBOLDT would have called it—
of the first traét, so mora (Mora excelsa), of the most
magnificent dimensions, far exceeding in grandeur and
beauty the mora of other parts of the colony, magnificent
as is this tree everywhere, is the characteristic plant of
this traét.
Here and there, at the heads. of some of the smaller
creeks, and on either side of the Morooka river, are open
savannahs of greater or less, but often of considerable,
size. These so-called ‘wet-savannahs’.must not be
confused with the savannahs or downs—of considerable
elevation, undulating, and covered for the most part
with comparatively short grass,—in the interior, between
the upper part of the Essequibo, the Roopoonooni, the
Takootoo and the upper part of the Cuyooni. These
wet-savannahs are marshes, the drainage of which forms
many of the creeks and smaller rivers; and they were
probably once lakes which have now been silted up.
Geologically the two traéts consist, the mangrove traét
of alluvion in which, in one or two places granite
boulders crop up, and the mora traét of granite, gneiss
and syenite.
216 TIMEHRI.
The whole distri€t is intersected by a most unusually
intricate system of rivers. Of these the main rivers,
those which flow dire&tly into the Atlantic, are the Pome-
roon with the Morooka, which two rivers now discharge
through a common mouth, though, the land about this
mouth having been much washed away, it is probable
that at no very distant period the Morooka was but a
tributary of the Pomeroon, the Waini, the Barima and
the Amakooroo. The general courses of all these, without
exception, is in a north-easterly direétion toward the
ocean. It might seem, glancing at the map, that they
belong to the water-system of the Orinoco, so distinétly
do they all, before discharging into the sea, turn toward
the huge delta at the mouth of that river; but it is more
probable that they once all ran more direétly into the
ocean, at points considerably lower down on the coast of
Guiana than their present mouths, but that the powerful
currents which pass from the mouth of the Amazon up
on to the coast of Guiana have gradually deposited
banks of mud across their mouths and have thus driven
them to seek outlets further and further north.
In default of exa€t measurements, it is difficult to
give any idea of the relative sizes of these rivers. The
Pomeroon at its mouth may be some 1000 or 1200 yards
wide ; the Morooka is but about 30 yards; the Waini
and the Barima are several miles wide; and the Ama-
kooroo some 200 or 300 yards,
All of these narrow but gradually and at points,
roughly speaking, at a distance from the sea proportion-
ate to the mouth of each.
Beside these main rivers there are many tributaries,
most of which are small, and indeed hardly noteworthy,
BETWEEN THE POMEROON AND THE ORINOCO. 217
but of which a few are of considerable size, sometimes,
at the point of junction, even as wide as the main river.
The larger tributaries of the Waini are, on the left
bank, at about 50 miles from the sea, the Barama, which
is even a more considerable river than the Waini above
the point at which the two join, and on the right bank
the Barimanni. On the Barima the two chief tributaries,
both on the right bank, close to each other, and not more
than from 40 to 50 miles from the sea, are the Arooka
(which is marked but not named on SCHOMBURGK’S map)
andthe Kaitooma. Asin the case of the main rivers, each
of these large tributaries has smaller tributaries of its
own; and most of these smaller tributary creeks rise,
either in savannah, or more often run down from small
hills, on which, hidden away in the forest, reside the few
Indian inhabitants of the distriét.
All the main rivers rise on the Atlantic side of the
Sierra Imataka range of mountains, which runs, roughly
speaking, parallel to, and at no great distance from, the
ocean. ‘Their courses are therefore short, and singularly
similar. All, with the exception of the Morooka, which
seems simply to consist of the drainage of certain
marshy savannahs, and with the possible exception of
the Pomeroon, for this possibly though not probably, also
takes its rise in a savannah, run down from the actual
slopes of the Sierra Imataka. The upper courses of all,
again with the exception of the Morooka and possibly
of the Pomeroon, are obstruéted by one or more ‘ falls’
or rather catara¢ts, of greater or less magnitude, caused
by the cropping up of the one or more belts of granite
which run across the country at right angles to, and
cutting, the courses of the rivers.
218 TIMEHRI.
‘As the crow flies’ the ‘first fall’ on each of the rivers
is about the same distance, probably about fifty miles,
from the sea; but, as the courses of the rivers wind
much and in very varying degree, the traveller in pass-
ing from the sea up to these various ‘first falls’ has to
travel very various distances.
The cataracts themselves seem, allowing for difference
in size, all to be of very much the same charaéter and
very similar to most of the many cataraéts of about
equal dimensions throughout Guiana. A description of
one, that of the Wain, will therefore suffice.
The so-called fall is in reality a broad and low, but
wide and long, cataraét, some 100 yards wide, in which
no great body of water is spread over a wide field of
much-broken gneiss rock. It occupies an oval space,
itself clear of, but surrounded by, trees, which spring
from and among other rocks of the same character as
those over which the water flows. These rocks, which
surround the fall and cover the ground so densely that
only tiny patches of white sand are left exposed here
and there, are very thickly carpeted with mosses
and selaginellas, and with a beautiful earth-creeping
little plant with large pink, gentian-like flowers (Szpanea
near acinifolia), amongst which, as also in the cran-
nies of the rocks and of the tree-roots, nestle many
tufts of a lovely but very minute pink orchid ; and much-
dwarfed clumps of an elsewhere tall-growing, white-
flowered, sweet scented Anthurium rise wherever there
is a small level patch of sand. And the trees which
grow nearest the fall, among these rocks are, root,
branch and trunk, so dwarfed and gnarled and twisted
and moss-covered, so hung with long feathery streamers
BETWEEN THE POMEROON AND THE ORINOCO. 219
of moss and of moss-like fern that it is difficult at first
sight to tell wood from stone, root from branch.
So far there is nothing peculiar about the rivers of
this distriێt. The one remarkable feature about them,
with which we have now to deal, is the extraordinary
system of, apparently, natural canals, or to use the ex-
pressive colonial phrase ‘water-paths’, between them.
For instance, there is a complete inland water-way from
the Pomeroon to the Amakooroo, and from there on into
the Orinoco ; and it may be as well, in order to give some
idea of these water-ways in general, to describe some-
what minutely this particular line of water-path.
Hidden among the dense mangroves on the northern
bank of the Pomeroon, at about four miles from the
mouth of the river, is the mouth of the Wakapoa creek,
which even there, and at high water, is hardly more than
from ten to fifteen yards wide. Passing up this creek for
about two hours, under trees which meet overhead, one
suddenly enters the savannah, covered by tall, rank grass
and sedges, the roots of which are at all times in swamp,
and the tops of which in the very height of the rainy
season hardly rise above the wide-spreading lake which
then occupies what is at other seasons savannah.
Round about, in the far distance, the forest, now
retreating to form one of many bays, now advancing
in one of many jutting points on to the savannah, and
many belts and clumps and single trees of eta palms
(Mauritia flexuosa) are seen. Whatever the season,
the winding bed of the creek is always distinguishable,
marked, even when the whole savannah is water-
covered, by the absence of grass along its course,
caused by the swifter flow of the current and the
DD
220 ‘TIMEHRI.
frequent passage of canoes, and by long broad bands
of water-lilies. Following the course of the creek
for about half an hour from the point at which it
first enters the savannah,’ a point is reached, close
to the Protestant mission of Kokerite, at which two
nearly equal streams join to form the creek up which
one has travelled. The branch coming from the left
is still the Wakapoa; that from the right is Correia
creek. Up the latter lies the way. For another hour
one crosses the savannah, along the course of the
Correia, which winds much, now into the bays of the
surrounding forest-wall, now between two projecting,
nearly-meeting points of forest, and from time to time
past island-like groups of trees in that sea of grass.
These tree-islands are really small patches of higher
ground, and are in almost all cases inhabited by
Indians. At last, on the right hand as one ascends the
Correia, a narrow water-path diverges from the main
stream. This is the a€tual ‘ water-path,’ or ‘itaboo’ as it
is locally called, which is certainly not itself a creek or
stream but serves to conneét the Correia with the Mana-
warin creek, which latter is a large tributary of the Mo-
rooka. These water-paths, though apparently natural, are
in all probability artificial ; but it will be better for the
present to defer discussion as to their nature. Passing
along this itaboo, for perhaps an hour and a half, across
the open savannah, it then suddenly passes, still through
purely swampy ground, into the deep shade of a dense
but low jungle, chiefly composed of thickets of a prickly
palm (Bactris leptocarpa, Trail); and after winding
through this for another hour, the itaboo suddenly passes,
between three or four forest trees of larger growth, out
BETWEEN THE POMEROON AND THE ORINOCO. 221
on to the comparatively broad Manawarin creek or river.
The way now lies down this, for some two hours, till the
Manawarin runs into the Morooka, at about eight miles
from the sea. Turning up the Morooka, one passes
in less than ten minutes the protestant mission of War-
ramoori, on the left hand; and two hours later, the
Morooka all the while running occasionally through
savannah, occasionally through large clumps of fair sized
forest, one passes, on the right bank, the Roman Catho-
lic mission of Santa Rosa.
The scenery of the Morooka, though this river runs
chiefly through savannah, is somewhat peculiar and re-
markably pretty. The grass being more even and less
coarse than usual, the trees being very beautifully
grouped, many hills rising from the savannah and these
having been taken possession of by a peculiar race of
Indians, called from their history ‘ Spanish-Arawaks,’
who, much more civilized than the pure Indians, have
cleared the ground and planted many fruit trees and
many clumps of that most beautiful of all tropical plants,
the bamboo, and have built fine large houses in such
prominent and well-chosen positions that one is inclined
to think they chose with a view to picturesque effeét
and view ; for all these reasons the land on either side
of the Morooka looks more like a stretch of English
water-meadow before hay-harvest than like the ordinary
coarse-grassed and muddy ‘ wet savannahs’ of the country.
In passing along the river it is not difficult to imagine
oneself floating, in early June, along the Thames between
Oxford and Henley. Once the resemblance is even to a
particular place. ‘There is a place on the Thames, just
above Shiplake Lock, where a low tree-clad hill rising
DD 2
222 TIMEHRI.
somewhat abruptly amid long stretches of rich water-
meadow, yellow in June with butter-cups and red with
sorrel and white with ox-eye daisies, is crowned by a
barn and some picturesque farm-buildings half-seen
among a few huge elms standing singly. And on the
Morooka there is a place very like this, where a pic-
turesque Spanish Arawak house but half seen among
the single forest trees, which the house builder has left in
clearing the forest, stands high on a hill which rises
from a long stretch of level savannah, the waving grass
of which is brightened by countless flowers of a beauti-
ful white lily (Hymenocallis guianensts).
But about an hour above Santa Rosa, a narrow itaboo,
along which is the way, passes off from the Morooka to
the left. After entering this itaboo no settlements are
visible along it, though in one or two places a well-
trodden narrow path starting from the water side indi-
cates that some family of Warrau Indians lives in a
house hidden away in some neighbouring coppice. But
even such places as these are only ‘one one,’ as the
negroes say, along this itaboo.
For two hours the itaboo winds in the most provoking
and apparently aimless manner, just as does an Indian
foot-path, here and there across the open savannah,
through, often at the side of, or between considerable cop-
pices, till at last entering one of these coppices it passes
almost at once into the small river Kamwatta, close to the
source of the river, which is here not more than four or
five yards wide and runs, not between dry banks, but
between heaps of mud only held together by the roots of
palms and of innumerable small trees, the branches of
which, overhanging and intertwining, make one long
BETWEEN THE POMEROON AND THE ORINOCO. 223
tunnel of the river everywhere but where, the forest
receding somewhat, the river widens into a series of
ponds, so thickly strewn with the flowers and _ leaves of
water-lilies as completely to hide the water except along
the one streak where passing canoes keep clear the path.
There is an exquisite beauty about the place, and there
is a terrible dreariness. For many miles there is no
house, nor even so much as a yard of dry ground on
which a house might be. Pull up one of the water-
lilies, and its roots come up laden and dripping with
the thick slimy mud; the very water is thick with mud ;
peep under the spreading heads of the bushes, in among
the moss and orchid covered tree trunks and palm stems,
and nothing is visible as far as the eye can see in that
dim light but mud heaps and mud holes and innumerable
twisted tree-roots and tree-trunks all mud-painted by
many previous high tides.. Here and there, a temporary
roof of a few palm leaves marks where some passing tra-
veller, stopping just long enough to sleep or cook, has
used the tree roots as an uneven floor, or, failing even
these, has overlaid the mud with a faggot of palm leaves,
to obtain foot hold. One gladly hurries first along the
Kamwatta for a few miles till it runs into the rather
broader and more open Bara-bara, and then along that
until it, in its turn, runs into the yet more pleasant
Biara, between beautiful and dense banks of graceful
manicole palms (Euterpe edulis). But the ground on
either side is still pure swamp.
The Biara is a tributary of the Barimanni, which itself
is a very considerable river; and this latter, again, runs
into the main river, the Waini at about fifty miles from
its mouth, The water-way from the Pomeroon to the
224 TIMEHRI.
Orinoco follows the courses of the rivers just mentioned.
But on reaching the point at which the Barimanni runs
into the Waini, the traveller has to choose between two
ways by which he may make his further journeys. He
may either pass up the Waini until he reaches its tribu-
tary, the Moraybo ; or he may pass down the Waini till,
when the sea is in sight, he comes to the Morawhanna.
If he takes the former course, on reaching the Moraybo,
an inconsiderable river not more than some 30 yards
wide at its mouth, his way lies up this for a short dis-
tance to a point where two branches meet. From here
it is somewhat difficult to explain the passage, owing to
the fact that, comparatively inaccurate as is the existing
map of this distriét generally, it is absolutely inaccurate
in its representation of the conneéting passage between
the Waini and the Barima. On the other hand, for that
very reason, and as a guide to future travellers by that
way, it is desirable to describe the real route, as nearly
as may be.
At the point where the Moraybo, as one ascends it,
first branches, the left hand branch is, according to the
Indians of the distri€t, the Moraybo proper; the right
hand branch, along which the way to the Barima lies, is
the Sowareeko. Travelling along this, having passed a
small creek coming in on the right hand, which being
uninhabited and never penetrated is said to have no
name, and also another small called Hobima—which
name in Warrau is said to mean ‘tiger-water’—one
comes in about an hour to a point where the river again
divides, the two parts being of about equal size. The
branch coming from the right is called the Saoreena; for
the branch from the left, along which lies the way, I
BETWEEN THE POMEROON AND THE ORINOCO. 225
could learn noname. Again three quarters of an hour
further on, the river divides, the large branch from the
right being the Beesi-besani, the small creek from the
left, along which lies the path, being the Seba-seba. And
in another half hour the entrance to the actual itaboo, or
connecting water-path, is reached, on the right bank.
This itaboo is very small and very much blocked by
fallen trees ; for the savannah through which it flows is
not open and grass-covered but is occupied by a jungle of
tall bushes and low trees. It conneéts the Seba-seba
with the Entagga river. After entering the latter, pass-
ing down its course, one reaches the main river, the
Barima, in about an hour.
A comparison of the passage between the Moraybo
and the Barima as above described from a€tual experi-
ence with the same passage as laid down in the map,
serves to show the inaccuracy of the latter. But though
the difference is certainly partly due to error on the part
of the map-maker, it is possible that it has also in part
arisen from the facts that there may be more than
one water-way between the two rivers, ‘and that, as is
certainly more noticeable in this part of Guiana than in
any other, each tribe often has its own name for each
creek, so that though none of the connecting streams as
above named are to be found on the map, it is possible
that some of these are really the same streams as those
indicated, under different names, on the map.
If, on the other hand, the traveller, instead of passing
from the Waini to the Barima by this Moraybo itaboo,
decides to go by the Morawhanna, on leaving the mouth
of the Barimanni he will turn, not up, but down the
Waini, and will travel along the ever widening course of
226 TIMEHRI.
that river till he comes within sight of thesea. Here, on
his left, he will find the mouth of the Morawhanna, an
itaboo which, on account ofits great size, requires special
mention. It conneéts the Waini, at a point close to its
mouth, with the Barima at a point some forty miles from
the mouth of that river. Perhaps the Morawhanna
should not in stri€tness be called an itaboo, as will pre-
sently be explained, in that it is certainly of natural, not
of artificial, formation. It is also of considerable greater
size than any of the other water-ways, and is of different
charaéter. As regards size, its entrance from the Waini
is about 100 feet wide; and its average width from end
to end is probably about 80 feet, though it broadens out
every now and then into a series of lake-like ponds.
Unlike the other water-ways, it is not a series of conneét-
ted creeks, but is a single, natural canal, perhaps ten
miles in length, between the Waini and the Barima. The
depth seems, on. the average, about 15 feet; and it
is hardly at all obstruéted by fallen trees, stumps or
sand-banks. There is no reason why, if it is ever
necessary, it should not be traversed by craft of consid-
erable size. It takes its tide, which runs through it very
strongly, from the Waini, not from the Barima. _ Lastly,
the scenery along its course is very different from that
of ordinary itaboos, or even from that of most rivers.
For, for some not very obvious reason, the low trees and
very numerous palms, principally troolie and manicole,
which everywhere clothe its bank are here grouped in
very unusually beautiful fashion. The great broad leaves
of the troolie, sheltered and yet not crowded by the
encircling trees, rise untorn by the wind and stand in
splendid relief. And the almost circular ponds into which
BETWEEN THE POMEROON AND THE ORINOCO. 227
the channel now and again expands, their still water
broken perhaps by a-single picturesque tree rising from
the surface, seem as though arranged by some skilful
gardener.
But whether the traveller pass from the Waini to the
Barima by the Morawhanna or by the Maraybo, on
reaching the Barima he has again to decide between
alternative ways by which he may make his further
journey.
Between, and roughly speaking parallel to the courses
of, the Barima and the Orinoco lie, to mention them in
their order from the Barima to the Orinoco, the rivers
Kaitooma and Arooka, which are tributaries of the
Barima, and the Amakooro. All of these, as are also
the Barima and Orinoco themselves, are ‘inter-connected
by one or more itaboos, such as have already been
described.
For instance, the Annabeesi creek, a tributary. of the
Barima, has an itaboo which connects that main river
with the upper waters of its tributary the Kaitooma; the
Kaitooma, again, has a tributary stream called the Quara,
or Cooshi, from which there is an itaboo into the Maho-
kobunna, which is a tributary of the Arooka; and the
Arooka in its turn is conneéted by its tributary the Aroan
with the Amakooroo, though in dry weather boats have
to be dragged for a few yards overland between the ‘two.
Again, the Amakooroo is conneéted, by the Cuyueeni, the
Waiakakoroo, the Bassana and the Aratoori, with the
Orinoco.
But the simplest way of reaching the Amakooroo from
he point on the Barima which is first reached in using
the itaboo by the Moraybo between the Waini and
EE
228 TIMEHRI.
the Barima is by following down the course of the latter
river to its mouth; and from there it is not more than
four, or at most five, miles by sea round to the mouth of
the Amakooroo. And in the same way, instead of using
one of the itaboos, of which there appear to be several,
though these are little known, between the Amakooroo
and the Orinoco, there is little danger or difficulty in -
coasting round by sea from the one river to the other.
In either way, the water communication between the
Pomeroon and the Orinoco is completed.
Probably when the district is better known many
other itaboos will be found. But enough has already
been said to indicate the very remarkable and _ intri-
cate net-work of water-paths throughout this district.
Something must still be said here as to the real nature
of these itaboos. The word itself, ‘itaboo,’’ is almost
certainly Indian; but whether it be Warrau or Arawak
or Carib it is difficult to discover. It seems now to
be used broadly for any water-way which connects
either one main river with another or two points on
one and the same main river; but its original meaning
is probably considerably less wide. In its broader sense
it is used of at least three slightly different sorts of
water-way.
One form is where a small side-stream leaves a large
main river to re-enter it at some lower point. Of
this kind, very curiously and most conveniently, there
are many on the upper Essequibo, so situated that
each of them affords an alternative way past, and by
which may be avoided, some dangerous cataract on the
main river, leaving the river above the fall to re-enter
below. For instance, there is such an one, of perhaps
BETWEEN THE POMEROON AND THE ORINOCO. 229
two miles in length though but a few feet in width,
down the rushing waters of which, swiftly as these
flow, boats may in comparative safety pass by and
avoid the big cataracts of Etannime; for in the itaboo
the too rapid passage of the boat may be checked
at the will of its crew, as they catch and cling for
the necessary moments to the tree-branches which
everywhere overhang and inter-arch at no great height.
Again, on the same river, the Essequibo, there is another
so-called itaboo, of considerably greater length and
widening out here and there into great pond-like reaches,
which does not avoid any fall. This leaves the main
tiver a mile or two below the point at which it is joined
by the Roopoonooni.
Another form is merely a natural canal, not between
two creeks of adjacent rivers, but between the two
main rivers themselves. And of this the best example is
the Morawhanna above described.
The third form is where a water-path almost cer-
tainly artificial connects the upper courses of two small
creeks or rivers. Of this kind are the water-paths al-
ready described, between the Correia creek and the
Manawarin, and between two side streams of the Mo-
raybo and the Barima respectively. These occur always
where the upper courses of the two connected streams
start from points not far apart on one and the same
‘wet savannah’ or, more rarely, insome forested swamp.
In such places there is at all seasons of the year a more or
less moist and muddy surface; and during the wet season
a good deal of water overlies the mud. Through this mud
or shallow water it is easy to move a canoe or light-boat,
either pushing it with poles or dragging it, from one
EE 2
230 TIMEHRI.
stream to the other; and in course of time, one canoe
after another having been thus pushed or dragged alone
the same path, an artificial channel is formed, along
which water flows at all seasons. Thus an artificial
itaboo is created between the two streams. The process
by which this happens may be readily seen on the upper
part of Morooka river, where its stream winds much and
widely through moist, grass-covered savannah ; and here
in many places, passing boats are dragged over such land
as is there for short distances, from point to point, so
as to cut off a long bend of the river. These short-cuts,
half-formed itaboos ona small scale, are already very
clearly and definitely marked on the savannah by their
very much shorter grass and the smoother surface of the
ground; but, though in time water will flow constantly
through these, at present it is only at times when there
is a considerable amount of water over the savannah that
boats can float along them.
It is to these artificial water-paths that the name
‘itaboo,’ it seems to me, more properly belongs.
The vegetation of the district, to which we must next
turn, has already been described as regards its general
characters in distinguishing the parallel tracts, of man-
grove and mora, which occupy the whole district. But
while the mangrove and the mora, respectively, are by
far the most abundant plants in these two tracts, other
plants are of course intermingled with these, especially
in the mora tract. And as these additional plants differ
in some degree from those general throughout the colony,
they claim a few words of notice.
Next to the mangrove and mora, the most abundant
vegetation is supplied by palms of various species, Of
BETWEEN THE POMEROON AND THE ORINOCO. 231
these the manicole palm (Zuterpe edulis) is the most
prominent, growing as it does in a profusion greater even
than in other parts of British Guiana. It is abundant in
the mangrove tract, and is present, though in less abund-
ance, in the mora tract; but it is just where the one of
these tracts passes into the other that it flourishes most.
On either side of the Biara river, for instance, which
runs just where the two tracts meet, it occurs in surpris-
ing numbers. Indeed, the dense ‘‘bush’’ there consists
almost entirely of enormous numbers of manicoles.
varied only by a good many bushes, or rather small trees
of ‘wild chocolate’ (Pachira aquatica), of unusually
large size, and a few trees of a kind (Spathelia sp?) of
which more will be said presently.
But if manicole is unusually abundant in the district,
another palm, commen elsewhere throughout the colony,
is here remarkable for its great scarcity. Throughout
the district there are but very few kokerite palms (I/axz-
miliana regia) ; and those which do occur are of remark-
ably stunted growth. Nowhere in this district does one
see the noble column-like trunk, the grandly curved capi-
tal of huge down-hanging spathes and flowers and fruits,
and the noble crown of vast plumed fronds which distin-
guish the kokerites of other districts. Here, where this
palm occurs at all, its dwarfed leaves rise to no great
height, it is almost without stem and has its few miser-
able bunches of flowers and fruit almost buried in the
mud.
Yet another palm requires notice here. This is
the troolie (Manicaria saccifera), which occupies so
much of the swamp lands of the Pomeroon and Barima
but is, curiously enough, rare, or at least very locally
232 TIMEHRI.
distributed, in the intermediate, though apparently equal-
ly suitable parts. For instance, on the Waini, at least
on those parts of its banks immediately above the junc-
tion of the Barimanni, the troolie does not occur at all.
But on entering the Moraybo, a tributary it will be
remembered of the Waini, close, but on the opposite
side to, the Barama, the troolie region is again at once
entered ; and from there right through to the Barima,
and down that river, it is once more abundant. The
leaves of this palm being used by the Indians of this dis-
trict almost exclusively for thatching their houses, those
of them who live away from the troolie-swamps have to
travel far and to carry home the leaves with much labour.
A few booba-palms (/rzartea exorrhiza) are scatter-
ed along the upper reaches of the rivers ; but apparently
nowhere within this district does this palm form the chief
vegetation of special tracts of swamp, as is the case in
the Corentyn district. The only other palm claiming
special notice is a small Gactris (like, but not identical
with, B. leptocarpa of Professor Trail), called by the
Warraus of this district yarooa, which occurs in very
great abundance on the lower part of the Barama, from
its mouth for some distance upward, and occurs scantily
in one or two spots on the upper Waini.
Along the upper reaches of these rivers two flowering
trees form a special and very noticeable feature. One
of these is the beautiful Brownea racemosa, the ‘rose of
the tropics’ as RICHARD SCHOMBURGK characteristically,
but somewhat inaptly, called it. It occurs scantily on the
Pomeroon, but apparently nowhere in Guiana south of
that. But on the Waini, the Barama, the Barima and
their tributaries this tree, for it there attains the
BETWEEN THE POMEROON AND THE ORINOCO. 233
dimensions of a small tree, constitutes the bulk of the
lower growth under the moras. Though it appears not
to flower abundantly, its few but very large bunches of
blossoms are of such intensely brilliant crimson colour
as to attract the eye from afar. Equally attractive are the
enormous magnolia-like flowers of a Gustavia, which is
very abundant on these rivers.
One other tree, though occurring throughout Guiana, is
nowhere so abundant as here. This is a species of
Spathelia, which makes a great show among the moras
by the river banks. Ina young state its single upright
stem and palm-like crown of grandly cut, dark-green
leaves make it look like a young booba-palm ; but as it
grows older, it branches scantily, and forms a wide-
spreading head of a few finely grouped leaf-clusters, in
the midst of each of which is set, in the flowering season,
a huge plume of countless white flowers.
Of the prickly bamboo which seems to belong, as
regards Guiana, almost exclusively to this district, I have
written already in an earlier number of Z7zmehrz.™
Orchids, as might be expected from the damp char-
acter of the district, are unusually abundant ; but these
are not very different from those of other parts of
Guiana. Probably because the district has been less
visited and less despoiled than many others, several
orchids, however, which were apparently once abundant
throughout the colony but are now rare elsewhere, are
here abundant. As an example of this kind, may be
mentioned Oncidium Lanceanum, which, common as it
is in quasi-cultivation in the gardens of the coast, is now
= _ =
* See p. III, ante.
234 TIMEHRI.
rarely to be seen in a wild state, except in this district,
in which it is fairly abundant.
One very beautiful little yellow orchid (Oncidium
wridifolium), occurring sparingly and in very small
clumps on the Pomeroon, grows wonderfully abun-
dantly and in very much larger clumps on the Barima.
The plant is fan-shaped, like a tiny iris plant, gene-
rally not more than an inch high and as much across,
from which rises, well above the leaves, a delicate
stem, on which unfold, one at a time, many yellow
flowers. Generally, each plant consists of one, or at
most two, fan-like tufts of leaves; but on the Barima
plants are to be found composed of a dozen or more
tufts, but so small that one can hold the whole clump,
root and leaves, in the hollow of both hands; and yet
there may be on it, besides buds, from thirty to forty
open flowers each an inch long and three quarters of an
inch across, of brilliant yellow, and like, but of more
brilliant tint than, single florets of Oncidium altissimum.
Another peculiar, and somewhat puzzling, orchid oc-
curs in this district, resembling in the general habit of
plant and leaf (though these latter are broaderand of a
darker shade) Burlingtonia candida, but with a pendent
wreath of greenish white flowers, like a long, down-
hanging spike of mignonette, rather the wild English
mignonette than the sweet kind of gardens.
A beautiful pure yellow (lemon coloured) variety of
Gongora is also noteworthy ; a violet flowered Sobralza
grows, though sparingly, on some of the tree trunks ; and
in the shady creeks, the lovely Stanhopea grandiflora
hangs down many of its great white delicate flowers.
On the whole, it may safely be affirmed that while the
BETWEEN THE POMEROON AND THE ORINOCO. 235
vegetation of this distri€t resembles in the main that of
the rest of Guiana, yet it has certain well-marked and
note-worthy features.
The animal life of the distriét is less peculiar. The
one bird to be noted as peculiar, as regards Guiana, to
this distriێt is the great horned-screamer (Palamedia
cornuta), the kamoko of the Indians, a huge black powis-
like bird with very formidable spurs on wings and legs.
It lives, breeds and feeds among the long grass of the
open patches ; and it becomes more and more abundant
the nearer one approaches the Orinoco. Another
marked feature in this distri€t is the very great abun-
dance of the blue and yellow macaw, (Ara ararauna)
the abouen-neh of the Warraus, which is to be seen in
parties of two, three or even more, on at least one tree
in almost every one of the innumerable bends of the
river.
Game, both four-footed and feathered, is unusually
abundant—doubtless on account of the sparse popula-
tion. Fish, too, is very abundant. One much sought
after species, locally called maracot, seems to be pecu-
liar to the mouths of the rivers of this distri. It
belongs to the genus Pacz, but is certainly not of the
‘same species as the Pacu shot in large numbers in the
Essequibo and Masserooni.
But of living things the most numerous in the distri@
are certainly mosquitoes, which swarm inside the mouths
of most of the rivers in such vast numbers as can only be
realised by experience. Yet these inseéts are curiously
distributed. Within the mouth of the Pomeroon, and that
of the Waini at many seasons of the year, they blacken
the air; and it is no exaggeration to say that they there
FF
236 TIMEHRI.
make night noisy with their roar. At the mouth of the
Barima they are less abundant; and within the Amakooroo
they do not seem to occur atall. It would almost appear
as though the head-quarters of these inse€ts were at the
mouth of the Pomeroon, and that they become less and
less abundant further and further from that point. But,
on the other hand, within the mouth of the Orinoco itself
they again become enormously abundant. It must be
added that the upper courses of all these rivers, and this is
especially true of the Pomeroon, are free from these
blood-suckers.
The population of the whole distriét is very scanty,
and is very scattered. Most of the inhabitants are Red-
men—True Caribs chiefly on the Barama and upper
Barima, Ackawoi on the Morooka and upper Waini,
Arawaks on the Morooka, and many Warraus everywhere
at the mouths of the rivers. On the Morooka there are
two missions—Warramoori, belonging to the church of
England, Santa Rosa belonging to the Roman Cathoiics ;
and these serve as centres, bringing the scattered popula-
tion together and making it thicker on that river than
elsewhere. | The members of the Warramoori mission are
the scattered pure-bred Indians of the above mentioned
tribes, who live elsewhere but have houses at the mission
to which they resort from time to time and especially on
Sundays. The members of the Santa Rosa mission, on the
other hand, form a curious and isolated group of people,
locally called ‘Spanish Arawaks.’ These are half-breeds,
between Spaniards and Arawaks, who fled southward
from the Orinoco to escape the evils of the final war of
Venezuelan independence, and, settling on the Morooka,
took shelter, as they supposed, under English rule. In phy-
BETWEEN THE POMEROON AND THE ORINOCO. 237
sique they show trace of both their parent races; they
speak, more or less impurely, bothlanguages; they pay de-
cidedly much more attention to cleanliness, and do far
more to make their homes pleasant, as for instance by
cultivating fruit trees and even flowers, than do pure
Indians; and they almost invariably in all ways keep
themselves aloof from the pure Indians. On the Waini,
at Quobanna, is a third mission, recently established,
in conneétion with that at Warramoori; but this, as is
the parent mission, is chiefly a centre to which the
pure Indians from the surrounding distriéts occasionally
and for very brief times resort. All the pure Indians
of the distri€t, whether they occasionally attend missions
or not, live, not on the main rivers, but far up the most
retired creeks; and consequently they are but very
seldom seen by the traveller, unless purposely sought. __
Except these Indian missions, there are but few
centres of population. Just within the mouth of the
Amakooroo there are some half dozen settlements, oc-
cupied chiefly by coloured men and Portuguese, who
have passed from the English side and settled there,
and by a very few Venezuelans. Again, on the Mor-
awhanna settlers of the same class as those on the
Amakooroo are now beginning to gather; and at a point
far up the Barama a few other settlements of the same
charaéter have recently been formed. There are also
two or three more such settlements scattered singly
throughout the distri€t. These are all the regular in- |
habitants of the distriét. i
But during the fishing season considerable numbers
of people from the Pomeroon and the Orinoco gather at
the mouths of the Barima and Waini to catch and salt
FF 2
238 TIMEHRI.
fish. And there are also some half-dozen regular tra-
ders, black people or coloured, who almost constantly
move about in their boats, or ‘floating shops,’ carrying
cheap European goods to the Indians and obtaining in
return such produce as these people have to give.
And this brings up the subject of the preduéts of the
distri€t. At present these are extremely few and unim-
portant. Chief of those a€tually obtained is perhaps
balata, the milk of the bullet-tree (J/7?musops balata),
which till recently was abundantly and widely scattered
throughout the mora traét; but, owing to this same search
for balata and the wasteful method in which it has been
carried on, the tree is now not far from being extermin-
ated. Almost every Indian colleéts bullet tree milk, and
in doing so unfortunately chops down the trees. Consi-
derable quantities of locust gum are also collected by the
Indians ; but as is the case with this substance elsewhere
in the colony, the supply, by its very nature, is limited, and
it must before long be virtually exhausted, even under the
very dilatory and inefficient system of colleétion followed
by the Indians. By the Indians a few yams are grown
for purposes of barter, and a few fowls and parrots
reared; and a very large quantity of fish is caught, cured
and, with the corresponding amount of fish-glue, bartered.
And, considering the small amount of land under such
cultivation, large quantities of yams, corn, and even
cacao are produced by the few coloured and Portuguese
residents ; this produce finding its way in about equal
proportions into the English colony and into Venezuela.
A very little timber, chiefly red cedar, is also cut by
these people. ‘This fairly exhausts the list of produce at
present obtained from the distriét,
BETWEEN THE POMEROON AND THE ORINOCO. 239
As to produce which might be obtained, the land is
very rich, and, under proper cultivation and with the
necessary heavy outlay on drainage, might undoubtedly
be made as fruitful as the similar lands along that part of
the coast which lies between the Essequibo and the
Corentyn ; and the uplands of the district seem especi-
~ ally suited for the cultivation of coffee and cacao. Timber
is abundant and fine; the mora, especially on the upper
parts of the rivers, is far finer than any to be found else-
where in the colony. And up the Barima and Amakooroo
red cedar is very abundant and fine. Nor would there
be much difficulty in getting this timber, when once cut,
to market; for the rivers are large and fine and afford
an unsurpassed system of water carriage. Lastly—and
according to some this is the most important faét about
the distritt—it may be taken almost for granted that
gold will, for good or evil, one day be found there.
Health in the Colony.
By §. E. Tinne.
Mie question can be of such burning importance
skae\ ape] to the colony as its public health; and yet none
MUeatd] here presents such glaring anomalies at the
outset, or offers more opportunities toa reformer, than the
conditions under which it at present exists.
The late epidemic of yellow fever, the still more
recent quarantine of the Shez/a from fear of cholera,
the alarming increase of leprosy, and the general sani-
tary state of our community now, as compared with
former years, present serious points of reflection.
It strikes one as strange that a country should have
such large and apparently unlimited powers of excluding
disease from outside as we now possess, and yet be so
regardless of the faét that disease is never purposely
brought here by those who visit us. For instance, we
introduce to this country annually some four thousand
immigrants from a city where Asiatic cholera is endemic,
besides the number of visitors to our shores from other
parts and yet we have no existing quarantine accommo-
dation for either East Indian coolie or mail passenger,
such as even Trinidad or Surinam can boast of. Ata
cost of from £6,000 to £8,000 we could purchase an old
iron steamer or ship, dismantle her, and place a double
deck upon her, making a floating hospital to hold a
thousand people if required.
Whilst, however, we have the means of placing a cor-
don around us that nothing but brute force could break,
HEALTH IN THE COLONY. 241
we are compelled by English medical opinion, enunciated
by at least some who have never seen a case of leprosy,
and in opposition to the voice of almost every other civi-
lized country, to allow that foul and deadly contagion to
spread rapidly within our camp and beyond our own
control. If, by the sense of modern public opinion at
home, local option in matters of drink has been recog-
nized, can any refuse us, living in the midst of this dread-
ful disease, the power to isolate its victims and save the
rest of the country? Is it the enormity of the task in India
that appals those who inwardly confess to the truth of
the increasing evil, and urges them to withhold from us
liberty to take the steps necessary for our own protec-
tion, because they would have to follow our example at
a heavier cost? In the Sandwich Islands, if a member of
the royal family itself, or one of the highest nobility,
becomes infeéted,—without a word or murmur against
what he recognizes as for the public good, he bids adieu
to his relatives in this world and retires for the remainder
of his life time to the leper island of Niolo Rai. What
savages of yesterday have learnt as a bitter experience
to be a necessity? what our neighbours, the Dutch,
consider a proper precaution at our very door, is to be
forbidden us, (who are almost omnipotent as regards
excluding disease from without) because it has already
landed and made its home here. Debates in the Court of
Policy, aletter to the newspapers, may awaken a passing
interest in the matter at the moment; but it is for those
who have known its unhappy viétims here and who live
in its proximity, persistently to agitate for a better state
of things and a sufficient control against the evil.
Generally, the colony would seem of late years to have
242 TIMEHRI.
made some pigmy strides in the path of sanitary reform.
Public baths, such as even the railing off the space be-
tween the two groynes where the Militia Band plays at
the sea wall, to keep out sharks, would afford at a very
trifling expense, seem to have gone out of recollection,
although in 1879 the money was voted for their ere¢tion.
One sees a few washing sheds, with Lamaha water laid on,
over some city trenches; but where overcrowding, de-
fe€tive sewage management (save in one experimental
distri€t), the rapid growth of tropical vegetation, the
equally quick alternation of heat and rain, the indolence
and improvidence due to climate and conducive to filth
and consequent sickness, exist there appears to be still
a wide field indeed for philanthropists to work in. That
an ample supply of pure tank water in time of drought
has as yet been secured only upon sugar-estates affords
a theme in itself.
Temperance also, as distinét from teetotalism or good
templarism, has lessons to teach here which are no less
valuable; and whilst it may reasonably be doubted
whether total abstinence from stimulants is to be the
rule for all, it is undoubtedly true that more to do,
whether in work or recreation, and less to drink would
be of benefit to the bulk of the community. From
this point of view it seems right that, whether one
partakes in the different means of occupying one’s
leisure or not, every one should support more a€tively
than they do, the boating, cricket, rifle shooting, athletics,
jawn tennis and other amusements; and steps should
be taken to facilitate the modes of access to pleasure-
resorts, such as the new Botanic Gardens, the many beauti-
ful lakes and creeks behind our estates, even the Kaieteur
HEALTH IN THE COLONY. 243
itself, from which at present the general public are
practically excluded by the want of very inexpensive aids
to travel, such as benabs at stated points, ferries and
tramways, at a minimum of cost and a maximum of
convenience. Lastly, it must not be forgotten that for
many years the colony has had to work for its bare
existence and could spare no time for those diversions
which make life in the Tropics as palatable as at home.
ACCOR
GG
A Visit to the Oil and Fibre Works at
Pin AForucuaernd
By the Hon. B. Howell Fones.
4 Y curiosity was aroused by the samples of co-
| coanut fibre which were given to me by Mr.
MusTARD and which I had the honour of laying
on the table at a meeting of this Society, on roth May,
1883. I therefore determined to take the first opportu-
nity of visiting the estate on which these were made.
Consequently, on the 17th of May I found myself wend-
ing my way, accompanied by Mr. MUSTARD, towards
Mahaicony, in which district Plantation Fortitude is situ-
ated. No sooner had we arrived on the creek road,
which has recently been put in order, than I found I was
indeed in the land of cocoanuts. Sugar was nowhere,
and King Cocoanut reigned in his stead. Wherever one
looked, cocoanuts in all stages of growth surrounded
the observer. Anda pretty sight it is to see the long
avenues of palm trees casting a refreshing and inviting
shade from the heat and glare of the tropical sun. Our
first resting place was at Pln. Sophia’s Hope, the resi-
dence of Mr. BARLOW, where we were most hospitably
entertained at breakfast. Mr. BARLOW is indeed a splen-
did specimen of a colonist. Forced on account of ill
health to leave the hills and dales of beautiful Devon,
he joined his brother, who was already a planter out
here, and for over fifty years has made this the land of
his adoption ; and during the last thirty-five years has
never left its shores; over eighty years old, hale and
OIL AND FIBRE WORKS AT PLN. FORTITUDE. 245
hearty, a living denial of the unhealthiness of the colony ;
and surely if our Honoured President merits the title of
“Sugar King,’ Mr. BARLOW may rightly be called
“ King Cocoanut.” But I am digressing from my sub-
jet. After breakfast and a chat on nuts and things
pertaining, we started for Plantation Fortitude, arriving
at which we were kindly received by Mr. SMITH, the
owner, who immediately proposed visiting the works.
No sooner had we entered the yard than we saw piles
of nuts ; and it is not until a tyro, like myself, sees masses
of nuts together like this, that he understands what a
vast difference there is in nuts. Here we saw large,
bright, reddish-brown, even-sized looking nuts which we
were tola came from such an estate, others dirty, brown,
undersized, and shrivelled, showing care had not been
taken with the estate on which they grew, tell-tales of
dirty trees or drainage unattended to ; but Mr. SMITH
makes use of them to keep his machinery employed, and
all is grist that comes to his millat present. As you enter
the machine shed, you soon discover that the manufactory
is divided into two distinét operations, the Oil Depart-
ment, and the Fibre, the motive power for both being a
14 horse power Robey Patent Engine, this being station-
ary, and placed under the boiler, working with a pressure
of 60 Ths. the square inch.
The nuts are first divested of their fibrous covering,
by manual labour, in the yard, 60 cts. per 1000 being
the price paid for this work, which consists simply of
splitting the husk on the sharp edge of a hoe fixed in
the ground, no better method at present being discovered.
The husks are then sent to the fibre department and
the hard nut, the fortune of which we intend first to fol-
GG 2
246 TIMEHRI.
low, being broken up by a hammer, is then placed on long
trays mounted on wheels, running in and out of a shed,
so as to avoid danger of getting wet, should a shower of
rain fall, whilst the sun’s aétion is shrivelling the kernel,
allowing it to come away easily from the hard shell. This
is soon accomplished and children are employed in sepa-
rating one fromthe other. The kernels, which at this stage
are called Copra, are sent away to the store room, and
the shells to be burnt to raise steam in the boiler. The
copra is then placed under the crushing mill, worked from
a shaft driven by a pulley, on the fly-wheel shaft of the
engine, as indeed are all the machines in this department.
The crushing mill consists of two large mill-stone wheels
revolving round a large iron saucer or pan and also round
their own centres; it is to all appearance like a large
mortar mixer, socommonly seen in England, only in that
case the saucer moves round, whilst in this the saucer is
stationary and the stones revolve. ‘The outer edges of
these stones are set in such a way that each one delivers
to the other the mass it has just crushed ; in this way the
whole is reduced toa fine powder. A door at the bottom
of the saucer is now opened, a scraper, revolving with
the stones, gathers the materials together and pushes it
through the opening into a shallow tray ready to receive
it. Itis now to all appearance like damp brown saw-
dust and is ready for placing in the steam-kettle, which
has a stirrer revolving inside which keeps the mass
moving until the temperature is raised to 120 F. A
sliding door is then opened, and the mass, which has as-
sumed an oily appearance is run into coarse cloth bags ;
these are put between wooden envelopes lined with tin,
and placed on the iron trays of the hydraulic press, The
OIL AND FIBRE WORKS AT PLN. FORTITUDE. 247
hydraulic pumps working in ail, which are self-aéting,
are then set to work, the first and biggest pump quickly
raising the pressure, which when it rises to a certain
point is taken up by the smaller pump until a pressure
of 1? tons to the square inch is reached. Long. before
this point is arrived at, the oil is seen bursting out from
the bags, flowing from tray to tray, until it finally falls
into a tank, from which it is pumped into the oil store.
This consists of a receiving tank, a settling tank, and
the pure oil, or shipping tank, arrangements being made
for drawing from one to the other.
We now return to the hydraulic press from which the
pressure has been taken off and the envelopes removed ;
the bags are now perfectly flat, and it is with difficulty
they are taken off from the hard cake formed inside. This
is now like oil-cake made from linseed, but is lighter,
in colour. Sometimes these cakes are again broken
up under the mill and are squeezed a second time,
or are mixed with the copra to prevent the mass under
the stones from becoming too oily, and after the second
pressure the cakes are fit for food. The broken cakes
are ground up into powder and form a fine food for
poultry, most of it being sold on the spot at 72 cts. per
100 ibs., or is used for mixing with fresh copra ; in this
way little or nothing is wasted.
One aétion of the pair of presses will crush the copra
fron. 400 nuts and yield per day 130 to 140 gallons of oil,
and the filter bags used will work up 100,000 nuts before
wearing out.
We then turned our attention to the husks, which are
first placed in a crushing mill, worked by a belt from the
fly-wheel, as are all the machines in this portion of the
248 TIMEHRI.
fa€tory, and which consists of two deeply grooved rollers
which flatten out and break up the outer silicate cover-
ing. They are then placed on trucks and wheeled to the
ponds placed at the side of the tramway, where they re-
main soaking in water for at least a week, but generally
for a much longer period, until the outer cuticle has to
some extent rotted and become soft. They are then
taken back to the factory and the process of extraéting
the fibre by the teazing machines commences.
The husk, being held in the hand, passes between two
small rollers about 14 inches in diameter, close to which
a large wheel, with its periphery covered with small
teeth, revolves with great speed, which, as soon as the
husk touches it, tears the refuse from the fibre and in
a few seconds leaves the fibres still somewhat dirty but
separated from each other. Then it is withdrawn and
the portion of the husk previously held in the hand
is submitted to the same process, leaving a bunch
of comparatively clean fibres. The refuse from these
machines goes to make what is known as “ No. 2 mat
fibre.”’ The fibre just aéted upon, which I have stated
is only comparatively clean, is again submitted to
a second process in another teazing machine kept clean
for this purpose, the result being a clean sample. The
refuse from this second operation goes to form what is
called ‘‘No. 1 mat fibre.” Mr. SMITH has three of these
teazing machines at work; but he finds they are not suffi-
cient for his wants, and he has three more, on their way
from England.
The fibre is tied up into small bundles, a number of
these being placed together and placed under an hydrau-
lic press forming a bale 2 feet x 2 feet x 3 feet weighing
OIL AND FIBRE WORKS AT PLN. FORTITUDE. 249
about 200 tbs. The refuse from the teazing machine is
again passed into a cleaning machine, consisting of a
wire cylinder about 8 feet long, slowly revolving in the
opposite direction to a shaft inside carrying teeth which
shake out the dust from the fibres, carrying it at the
same time forward and discharging it clean at the other
end. This machine is most simple and effeétive. Of
course the 1st and 2nd mat fibres are passed through
separately and are packed by themselves, in bales similar
in size to the brush fibre, but only weighing 120 to 130 Ths.
But before packing, all the fibres are exposed to the sun,
for drying, and are exposed on wheeled trays running on
a tramway similar to those used for drying the copra.
Thus every portion of the cocoanut is disposed of, and
is marketable with the exception of the refuse from the
mat fibre cleaning machine, no use having been found for
this, except for nurserymen at home, who place it as a
top dressing to bedding plants and on the pots in green-
houses, and I have no doubt our Government Botanist
will be able to take some of this for the Botanic Gardens,
and perhaps tell us if it would be suitable as a manure in
cane cultivation.
After inspeéting the works we walked through the
cocal. This consisted, a few years ago, of some hun-
dred trees, but Mr. SMITH with his energy has now 7000
trees in full bearing, all kept clean and in good order.
He states his average crop is 700,000 nuts, at which Mr.
MUSTARD expressed some surprise, as he considered it
high. Here and there we saw signs of the inexplica-—
ble cocoanut disease, not to be confounded with the
tatack of the beetle, and on talking over the matter, both
Mr. SMITH and Mr. MUSTARD were of opinion that it
250 TIMEHRI.
results from the planting of green nuts, which grow much
more rapidly than ripe ones, and that after bearing one
or two crops they seem to get exhausted and die away.
This opinion is to some extent borne out by the faét that
in the older walks, such as that behind Mr. BARLOW’S
house, the trees have never suffered. I mention this, as
anything that can throw light on this strange disease or
lead to a clue to the mystery must be useful to those in-
terested in this cultivation.
In this paper I have not touched on the number of
persons employed on the works or the rate of wages
paid, as it must be remembered the works are only in
their infancy, the full power of the faétory undeveloped,
and the hands unskilled in the use of the machines.
Under these circumstances any minute detail of this des-
cription would be unfair to Mr. SMITH and misleading to
the members of the Society; but I hope I have shewn what
anyone with energy and push, coupled with brains such
as Mr. SMITH possesses, can accomplish in establishing
what are now termed “small industries,’ and I am sure
all members of the Society will wish Mr. SMITH all suc-
cess in his venture and that it may be the forerunner of
similar establishments in the colony.
There is one thing which struck me on my visit to
Mahaicony which I do not think it is out of place to men-
tion here, this is the answer received to my question
‘“Who are your labourers ?’’—“ Oh, Coolies ; nothing but
Coolies” ;—a warning, to those who advocate small indus-
tries, that if their theories are to be successful they must
look to immigration for assistance; a rebuke, to those who
are constantly grudging the revenue supplying } the
present cost; and a strong point in favour of those who
OIL AND FIBRE WORKS AT PLN. FORTITUDE. 251
know that without immigration the colony would not be
what it is, and that as its success at present and in the
past must be attributed to immigration so in the future
will this have to be continued, if we wish to see that
prosperity maintained and small industries progress and
flourish.
HH
Notes on West Indian Stone Implements.
(/lustrated.)
By the Edttor.
No. 2.
Aff (ia N the former note on this subjeét* the last speci-
A © men described and figured | Plates 3 and 4,] was
a curious stone mill or mortar, or, as I rather sup-
pose it to be, a bench, from Mr. E. L. ATKINSON’S collec-
tion. Since that was written, the owner of that implement
has called my attention in a letter to certain hypotheses,
one of which is somewhat wild, which have been held as
to such stones. ‘I did form some opinion,” he writes,
‘as to what use the ‘cocked hat’ had been put
I thought it had been used rather to make fire with,
as the inner groove seemed to be for the purpose of
rubbing, or as a mill; but I have read of others
perfeétly flat. I also saw in an American catalogue
that they were supposed. to represent the island of
Cuba, as all they had had come from that island, and in
the distance it (Cuba) had the appearance of one of those
stones ; but I think the faét of one coming from another
island (i. e. St. Vincent) so far away from Cuba knocks
that on the head. Mr. OBER, who was sent to the West
Indies by the Smithsonian Institute, picked up a very
curious little imitation of a turtle in Balliceaux, a small
island near St. Vincent where the Caribs were imprisoned
after the last war. An engraving of it may be seen in
*See Timehvi, vole 1. Pp». 257:
WEST INDIAN STONE-IMPLEMENTS. 253
his book ‘‘ Camps in the Caribbees,”’ where he also gives
extra€ts from various authors about these images. It
might be inferred that the turtie was one of the deities
of the Caribs of St. Vincent. I think the head on one
end of my stone represents that of a turtle and the
other that of some fish. The stone may have been
used as an idol, and the hollow part made to cause it to
fit firmer on its pedestal.’ As regards the strange sug-
gestion that the stones are representations of the island
of Cuba it is probably not necessary to write. As
regards the other theory, based partly on Mr. OBER’S
remarks, that these stone benches were idols, | may
add that in reviewing /Mr. OBER’S book, at the time of
its appearance, in an English literary journal, I remarked
that ‘the wooden objet, representing a tortoise, figured
on p. 223 as an image of a gemz, an inferior sort of deity
said to have been worshipped by the old Caribs, is in
reality, as Mr. OBER himself seems half to suspeét, part
of an Indian bench or stool. The Indians are still in
the habit of making stools roughly resembling such
animals as alligators, tortoises and frogs ; and the ‘zemz’ -
figured is the head-piece of one of these stools. To
Mr. OBER’S information that the eyes ‘are carefully.
carved hollows, as if for the reception of some foreign
substance’ I may add that the substance now usually in-
serted to represent the eye is. a bright-coloured seed.’
In short, while agreeing with Mr. OBER that his turtle.
was part of one of these bench-like articles, 1 cannot
agree either with him or with Mr. ATKiNSON that there
is any probability of such articles having been regarded
as idols. The further suggestion of the latter gentleman
that the hollow part of the stone may have been
HH 2
254 TIMEHRI.
intended to fit on to the top of a pedestal is, I think,
negatived by the fa€t that in the great majority of
examples the hollowed surface is obviously intended
to be uppermost, the opposite surface being flat, not
pointed as is Mr. ATKINSON’S peculiar example, and
very certainly intended to rest on the ground. It may be
as well to add that I gather from Mr. OBER’S book that
in the Report of the Smithsonian Institute for 1876 there
is an elaborate article describing, amongst other things,
several of these ‘stools’, from Porto Rico; but this
article I have never been fortunate enough to see.
Those notes being as it were jottings of such informa-
tion as comes to hand from time to time, I may here insert
another interesting extraét from a letter of Mr. ATKIN-
SON’S, concerning the same island of Balliceaux above-
referred to. He writes ‘that the Caribs had a burial
ground in the island of Balliceaux. I have only heard of
it, having only once been there. The gentleman who told
me said he had often seen the skulls, each one packed in
a little urn, and very close to the surface of the ground.
I cannot say if there are any there now. Balliceaux is
about eight miles from St. Vincent ; and from it to Gren-
ada there is a string of small rocks and islands. I have
specimens (of stone implements) and have heard of many
more that have been picked up on these rocks and
islands, upon which Caribs were never known to live;
and,in fa€t, on some they would not have been able to,
from their small size, On one of these islands (Mustique)
I picked up some very curiously shaped pieces of shell,
seemingly made, or rather shaped, by hand; but the
people on the island told me they were pieces of conch
shell broken of and smoothed by the sea, I have reason
WEST INDIAN STONE-IMPLEMENTS. 255
now to believe that they were Carib implements similar
to the St. Lucia (?) and Barbados specimens. :
My ‘gouge’* and a very sharp ‘knife’ of greenstone
1m, also came from Mustique. But Caribs
could hardly have lived there, as there is no water.’
It is very much to be wished that further information
may be obtained of this supposed Carib burial place and
of the other Indian relics of these islands.
As regards the skulls packed in urns | may mention
that some years ago Dr. WALLEN, a Venezuelan, and for-
merly in the army of that country but since resident in
Georgetown, in the course of a very interesting letter on
shell mounds and other similar subjeéts which he sent me,
mentioned his possession of an earthern cup of baked
clay, the shape of a human skull, which was found, toge-
ther with some other relics of Indians, in some loose
mould near the village of Serro on the coast of the Gulph
of Paria. As it is just possible that this skull-shaped cup
may bear some relation to the skull-urns of Balliceaux,
Dr. WALLEN’S statement is worth mentioning.
The implements which Iam able to figure on this
occasion are all from the collection of M. ROUSSELET of
St. Lucia; and they were, I believe, all found on that
island. M. ROUSSELET was good enough to send them
to the British Guiana Exhibition held in Georgetown in
1882.
By far the most remarkable of these implements is that
figured on Plate 5. It is of very considerable size; its
greatest length is thirteen inches, and its greatest height
* This ‘ gouge’ is the very beautiful little implement figured (No. 7)
on Plate II, See Timehri vol. 1. p. 265.
256
TIMEHRI.
_ Plate 5.
UGE MEGS MGA cat ler... c
WEST INDIAN STONE-IMPLEMENTS. 257
(from top to bottom as it stands on the plate) is seven
and ahalf inches. Unfortunately, I failed to note its
greatest thickness ; but this must be at least an inch and a
half. Nor did I note its weight.
It will at once be obvious that its manufacture must
‘have involved great labour. Its chief and great value to
us then rests on the rather paradoxical fact that,
notwithstanding this great effort involved in its man-
ufaéture, it is almost, if not quite, impossible to suppose
that it can even have been of any practical use to
its makers and first owners. I have already pointed out
that, in accordance with an Indian habit of which strong
traces may yet be observed in the surviving members of
the race, Indians, and of these especially the Caribs,
seem to have been in the habit of very elaborately
fashioning and ornamenting certain hatchets and other
implements of the types which they ordinarily used, and
of keeping these glorified examples not for use but for
ornament. Possibly these were made as examples of
what they could do; possibly, though not used praétical-
ly, these had certain ceremonial uses. Perhaps the
very remarkable stone here figured belongs to this
class of ornamental or ceremonial, as distinguished from
practical, implements. But if so, it differs from almost all
others known to me in that at first sight it appears to
be, not a glorified hatchet, or any kind of implement
ordinarily used, but is apparently of a purely imaginative
form. On the other hand, it is quite possible that this
stone may have been made and used as a sort of
‘banner-stone,’ as an emblem or ensign, to be carried
perhaps with war-parties, perhaps in ceremonial dances
or feasts; and in that case it may be of a form tradi-
258 TIMEHRI.
tionally proper for such purposes, and may even be the
conventionalized figure of some common objet, just
as for instance the conventional ‘fleur-de-lis’ represents,
or misrepresents, some flower, probably the common
iris.
As regards these ‘ banner-stones’ some information
may be gathered from the catalogue of General PITT-
RIVERS’ instruétive colleétion as exhibited a few years
ago at the Bethnal Green Museum, which colleétion, by
the way, has recently been given to the University of
Oxford. In this catalogue it is pointed out that axes in
their earliest and simplest forms were probably used
merely as tools ; at a later period they were used also
as weapons; and ata still later period a further use was
found for them, as ceremonial emblems. And when used
in this latter way the blade, and often the handle, were
sometimes modified and ornamented to such a degree that
the whole was hardly to be recognised as a weapon.
General PITT-RIVERS writes* :—
Thus, modified and scarcely to be recognized as the semblance of a
weapon, it may be regarded as the last vestige of the war axe. The
axe, like the spear, was in ancient times used to mark a boundary. Of
this we have an instance in the charter of Canute to Christ Church,
Canterbury,.....51.... granting the harbour of Sandwich and the dues
thereof on either side as far as a man standing on a ship at flood tide
could cast a taperaxe. Thiscustom of throwing an axe to mark a
boundary has survived in some parts of England to our owntime. The
axe bound up in the fasces and carried by the Lictors before the Roman
Consuls and others affords another example ofthe use of this imple-
ment for state ceremonial purposes. In the consular coins it is repre-
sented crowned as a badge of office. In ancient Egypt it passed into
* Catalogue of Anthropological Collection lent by Colonel LANE-
Fox (afterward Genera] Pirr-Rivers) to the Bethnal Green Branch of
the South Kensington Museum. p. 142.
WEST INDIAN STONE-IMPLEMENTS. 259
the reign of mythology and became the symbol of the Deity, and from
thence into the hieroglyphs inscribed upon the ancient monuments, in
which it stands for the word God.
So far | have been condensing from the PITT-RIVERS
catalogue a brief account of the transition of the simple
axe, a practical tool, into the highly ornamented weapon,
useless but as an emblem. But it must be added that in
the instances given above the transition was accomplished
only in a long period of time ; it began probably when
stone was the only material of which axes were made
but was not fulfilled until the much later stage when
civilization had long ago brought about the use of iron as
a more suitable material for these weapons. But if the
suggestion that some of the very elaborate and appa-
rently useless stone implements found in the West Indies
were in reality axes elaborated into ‘ banner-stones,’ or
mere ceremonial emblems, could be proved it would fol-
low that the modification of the pra€tical axe into the use-
less emblem was, at least occasionally, accomplished
much more rapidly than is indicated in the above-men-
tioned catalogue, and within the duration of that stage of
civilization when stone remained praétically the only
material of which implements were made.
In any case this stone is a remarkable example of the
extreme and, I believe, almost peculiar, elaborateness of
certain West Indian, or as they are commonly, though on
perhaps somewhat insufficient evidence, called Carib,
stone implements. Viewed in this light, side by side with
this implement may be placed the stone (or sometimes
wooden) benches or mortars already described. And
yet other examples to be placed in this class are to be
found in the very remarkable ‘stone-collars’ which have
I]
260 TIMEHRI.
been found in St. Domingo, Porto Rico and St. Thomas.
These stone collars are so rare that | may not be for-
tunate enough to be able to figure an example in this
series, more especially as none have occurred, I| believe,
in the Lesser Antilles or in Guiana, from which places I
have as yet been obliged to draw most of my examples.
But as no general notice of West Indian stone imple-
ments would be complete without some account of
these collars, | reproduce the following descriptive note
from Mr. STEVENS’ catalogue of the BLACKMORE Museum,
in which is included an example of these collars, which
was procured by Sir ROBERT SCHOMBURGK in St.
Domingo.*
No, 8 isa sculptured stone collar. It is of an oval form, measuring
ten inches and a half in its lesser, and fifteen inches and three quarters ©
in its greater, diameter.
An elliptical stone collar was exhibited to the Society of Antiquaries,
January 21st, 1869, by Mr. Josiah Cato, who made the following obser-
vations upon these objects :—
The ancient stone ring which I have the honour of exhibiting to the
Society of Antiquaries this evening is an object of extreme rarity in
English collections, and of quite unknown use. It was brought to this
country in December, 1865, by my friend, Mr. E. B. Webb, from the
island of Porto Rico, where it wasfound. It is formed from a boulder
of light coloured volcanic stone, is seventeen inches and a half in its
greater, and fourteen inches and a quarter in its lesser, diameter. The
elliptical perforation has a major axis of twelve inches and one-eighth,
and a minor axis of eight inches and a quarter. The weight is twenty
five and a half pounds (avoirdupois). Externally, the ring has two dis-
tinct ornaments; one, at the end of the ellipse and the thickest part of
the ring, is chevronnée, with nine incised chevronels. The other, on
the side of the ellipse, may perhaps be intended to represent the ends
of a loop which have been laid together and bound with a ligature.
* Guide to the Blackmore Museum, Salisbury, by Epwarp T.
STEVENS. p. 70.
WEST INDIAN STONE-IMPLEMENTS. 201
This second ornament appears on other specimens found in the same
island, but the chevronels are replaced by other designs. I am not aware
that the human figure is any case represented. The example before the
Society was exhumed from a considerable depth from the surface, near
the top, but on the southern side of, the sierra, or range of hills, which
runs from east to west nearly throughout the length of the island. It
is supposed to be the only specimen from this southern slope ; but Mr.
Webb saw several which had been found on the northern, anciently the
more populous, side of the island. They included about five entire
rings, and fragments of about as many others. They were all in the
possession of one person, who would not part with them, and were all
which were then known to have been found in the island ; but Mr.
Franks has kindly pointed out to me that a similar ring is engraved
in the ‘Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord,’ in a
report by C. C. Rafn on the ‘Cabinet d’Antiquités Américaines a
Copenhague, 1858,’ and that it is said to be from the island of Porto
Rico.
A similar ring, but of lighter proportions and more finished work-
manship, is in the magnificent collection formed by the late Mr.
Christy. It is from the island of St. Thomas, and may have been
obtained by Mr. Christy, in exchange, from the Copenhagen Museum.
Its internal diameters are thirteen, and eight and a half inches.
The only other specimen known to be in this country belonged to
the late Sir Robert Schomburgk. It was sold on the 1st December, 1865,
by auction at Steven’s ; and is now in the Museum formed by Mr.
Blackmore, at Salisbury. Its internal dimensions are twelve and a half
and eight and a quarter inches.
Dr. Wilson, in his ‘ Prehistoric Annals of Scotland” (Vol. I. p. 222),
engraves two stone collars, which are somewhat like the specimens in
the Blackmore and Christy collections, and are said to have been found
near the parallel roads of Glenroy. Judging only from the engraving,
they are, however, very much more likely to have come from the Carib-
bean islands.
With regard to the probable use or purpose of these rings I can give
no information, but I shall be very much obliged for any suggestion,
or for hints as to any works likely to contain such an account of the
customs of the natives at the time of the Spanish invasion as may
afford a clue to the mystery. Such elaborate pieces of work in hard
stone could not have been intended to serve either atemporary or a
{1 2
262 TIMEHRI.
trifling purpose. They are all far too heavy for ordinary use, but yet
not heavy enough to kill, or even torture the wearer, if we regard them
as collars of punishment.
It is doubtful whether in any other part of the world
a people as primitive as the inhabitants of the West
Indies who carved these stones presumably were have
produced such elaborate carved work in this same stub-
born material as these stone benches, stone collars and
the implement here figured.
Turning now to Plate 6, No. b, on this is another
example of the winged type of hatchet, which may be
compared with No. 2 on Plate 1 (see Zvmehrz, Vol. 1p.
264), from which, however, it differs in that the wings
of this are simple, not as in that, double. The pre-
sent example differs from No. 3, also on Plate 1 in that _
it wants the perforation of that example. No. 2 on the
present plate [Plate 6] is also of the winged type, but
is especially noteworthy in that it shows very clearly
that it was bound, at the neck, on to its handle, and was
therefore not used, as many of these so-called stone
‘hatchets’ almost certainly were, without a handle, as a
wedge with which wood was split. The present example
is also a good illustration of the way in which these
wings were of service in strengthening the binding of
the stone on to its handle.
Nos. 4, 5, 6 & 7 are all alike of a round-bladed type,
in which the blade is almost completely circular and the
handle, or upper end, is also often in the form of an
almost complete, but smaller circle. This type occurs
in remarkable abundance in St. Lucia and in St. Vincent,
but is apparently not nearly so frequent elsewhere.
Of other examples from M. ROUSSELET’S colle¢tion
ae
s
ao
=a
3
jz
a
5
264 TIMEHRI.
I have figures which I hope to be able to produce on
some future occasion. But the next of these notes it is
proposed to devote to a splendid series of implements
most generously placed at my disposal by Sir THOMAS
GRAHAM BriGGsS, Bart, of Barbados.
The River Berbice and its Tributaries.
By Alexander Winter.
PpHIE Berbice, next to the Essequibo and Coren-
Eo) tyn, is the finest river in British Guiana. It
YY
rises in Lat. 3° 14’ N. a little to the south of
King WILLIAM THE FOURTH’S cataraét on the Essequibo,
from which it is distant about ten miles, and empties
itself into the Atlantic Ocean in Lat. 6° 20'N. after a
somewhat winding course of three hundred miles, of
which more than half is navigable for ships of consider-
able size. The first barrier of rocks, to impede naviga-
tion, does not occur for a distance of 175 miles from the
mouth, consequently ships can go a longer distance up
this river than up the larger rivers Corentyn and Esse-
quibo.
It forms the drainage of a very wide extent of country
lying between the rivers Corentyn and Demerary. The
former of these rivers has no important tributary on its
left bank, above the Mapenna, so that the drainage of
the eastern portion of the colony finds its way to the
sea by the Berbice, being brought in by the large
tributaries the Icoorowa, Canje and Wikky. To the
westward of Berbice, the alluvial portion of the land
is drained direétly into the sea by the rivers Abary,
Mahaicony, and Mahaica ; but the upper distri€t, beyond
the sources of these three rivers, has to be drained by
the Berbice, as the watershed between this river and
the Demerary is within a few miles of the right bank of
the latter river, and the drainage is brought in to the
aaa TIMEHRI.
Berbice by the Virogne and the Etoony, both consider-
able rivers, and higher up, by the Eberoabo and the
Youacoury.
The Berbice, in common with all the rivers of Guiana,
has a bar across its mouth, or rather a mud flat, on which,
at low water during spring tides, there is not more than
five feet of water ; but at high water there is some
fifteen feet. In the sea reaches of the river, there are
also shallows for about 25 miles up, which though imped-
ing the navigation of large vessels at low tide, yet
have a beneficial effect in keeping back the run of fresh
water from the interior, so that the river is always navi-
gable.
The Berbice at its mouth is about two miles wide, and
is divided into two channels by Crab island. It has often
been suggested to close up the lee channel and so cause
all the water to go out at one channel, which would
probably have the effect of deepening the water on the
bar. This might be brought about gradually, by run-
ning a groyne out from the west bank towards Crab
island and a similar one from the island towards the
the shore. This would cause the lee channel to silt up,
and also prove a proteétion to the west coast, which at
present is being rapidly washed away.
Nearly opposite Crab island, on the east bank the
river Canje (pronounced Canye) falls in. This is a very
important tributary, having a course of over a hundred
miles, and receiving at eighty miles from its mouth, a
considerable addition in the water brought in by the
[coorowa from the eastward, being the drainage of a
large tract of country lying between the Canje and the
Corentyn. At the head of the Icoorowa, is a fine lake,
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 267
called the ‘‘ Broadwater’’, of several miles extent, with
white sandy margin, and some small islands in it. It is
from the banks of the Icoorowa that the principal supply
of bullet-tree timber comes, and it is of a very excellent
description.
In the upper distriét of Canje, or as it is called in the
Dutch maps ‘ Canje boven’’, were several estates in
cultivation, traces of which still remain, particularly of
the cocoa plantations where cocoa trees have survived
and grown into forest trees.
The Canje is much impeded in parts by so-called
“floating islands”, which in some places, stretch right
across from bank to bank, presenting an unbroken sur-
face of green entirely covering the water and giving it
the appearance rather of a green lawn than a river.
Lower down towards the end of the creek this vegetation
is broken into detached masses and carried down by
the current into the Berbice river, where these drift up
and down with the tide and are eventually carried out
to sea. These floating islands are generally called “ mis-
“souri grass’, but they are composed of three distinét
plants. Missouri grass (Panicum), a kind of floating
buckwheat (Polygonum), and a Pontederia with pretty
hyacinth-like pale flower. The Berbice river is remark-
ably free from these floating masses, except high up,
above the cataracts, where they are found, composed of
the same three plants.
Opposite Crab island, on the east bank of the river, is
the site of Fort St. Andrew, where the military were
stationed till 1828 or 1829, when the troops were removed
to the new barracks which had been built at the junction
of the Canje with the Berbice and called Fort Canje.
KK
268 TIMEHRI,
Fort St. Andrew was then dismantled and the buildings
sold. A little below Fort St. Andrew was the ‘‘ one-gun
‘battery’, at the mouth of the East Coast Canal, and
immediately opposite on the West Bank was the York
Redoubt, the site of which has been covered by the sea.
The extensive buildings of Fort Canje were built by
the home government under the direction of the officers
of the Royal Engineers ; and to furnish plank for them
a powerful steam saw mill was established on the banks
of the Canje, and large quantities of bullet tree timber
were sawn up there. The person in charge of this saw
mill was a Mr. WILLIAM FRy, who also had a boat build-
ing establishment of his own, a littie higher up the
creek. He had a steam engine and saw mill, and
carried on a very profitable trade. When emancipa-
tion took place and the negroes began to leave the estates
and wander about, Mr. FRy employed many of them
in planting canes, and applied his steam engine to a mill
to grind canes; and so a small sugar estate was estab-
lished. This employment of the emancipated negroes
gave great offence to their former masters, the proprie-
tors of the estates in Canje ; but the Governor, Sir JAMES
CARMICHAEL SMYTH, was pleased with the idea of this
new sugar estate started on the free system, and sup-
ported Mr. Fry in his undertaking, by giving him the
occupancy of the government land lying between the two
saw mills. In gratitude to this Governor, the place was
called ‘‘Smythfield” ; which name it still retains.
About a mile above the mouth of the Canje is the town
of New Amsterdam, on the banks of the Berbice, built
on a peninsula, surrounded on two sides by the river and
on a third, by the creek. The town of ‘‘New Amster-
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 269
dam’’ was built as the capital of the colony when the old
town of the same name, near Fort Nassau, about 60
miles up the river, was given up and the alluvial lands
of the lower distri€t began to be cultivated. The Dutch
originally settled in the upper distri€t, not so much, as
has been said, for security from pirates and buccaneers,
as because, with the few labourers they had, the higher
lands, having natural drainage, suited them best ; when the
supply of labour increased, they could afford to empolder
the heavy clay lands of the alluvial distri€t, which, when
once drained and put in cultivation, were far more pro-
fitable.
The exact date of the commencement of the town of
New Amsterdam does not appear; but we learn from
Dr. PINCKARD’S amusing “ Notes on the West Indies’’,
that the town, at the time of his visit in 1796, was the
residence of the Governor, (VAN BATENBURG), though
there were few other houses. This is his description of
the place, ‘‘The town is yet in embryo. The whole
“scenery at New Amsterdam, as well as at Fort William
‘Frederick (Demerary) betrays the infant state of the
‘colony. The dreariness of the land, just robbed of its
“thick woods—the nakedness that prevails around the
‘government house—the want of roads and paths—the
“wild savannah—the heavy forests : in short all that
‘meets the eye conveys the idea of a country just emerg-
“ing from its original wildness, into cultivation.”
Berbice has suffered much socially from the transfer of
the seat of government to Demerary, and by the system
of centralisation which has followed this, as well as from
the removal of the troops and from the cessation of the
coffee cultivation ; yet the town of New Amsterdain has
Kk 2
270 ‘TIMEHRI.
gone on increasing in size and number of inhabitants.
The population by the census of 1881 was 8,386 and the
amount of shipping that cleared at the Port last year
was 206,685 tons.
The river opposite the town is broad but shallow. On
the west bank was formerly a continuous line of estates
for some fifteen miles up. Now, excepting plantation
Blatrmont, there is not a single estate in cultiva-
tion on that side of the river. On the town side
about two miles up is a fine sugar estate called Pvrowr-
dence. ‘This is the only sugar estate in the county that
remains in the possession of the same family that owned
it at the time of emancipation in 1834.
About three miles further, at Plantation Bellevue (hap-
pily so named), the river takes a bend and a fine reach
opens up, giving a somewhat lake-like charaéter to the
scenery. This reach is called in the Dutch grants, the
‘“ Groote marri-paam,’’ meaning probably the great es-
tuary, or sea reach.
Near the upper end of the Groote marri-paam on
the east bank, is Plantation Hzghbury, a fine sugar
estate that once belonged to the ‘“ Berbice Association.”
The Berbice Association occupied in this colony very
much the same position as the East India Company
did in Hindoostan. Although owning allegiance to the
Sovereignty of the States General in Holland, the mem-
bers of the association were the virtual proprietors of all
the country, and had the government of it. They sold
out lots of land to private individuals who were willing
to cultivate them and establish estates. These lots or
grants were all carefully measured by land surveyors,
and diagrams of them were deposited in the Registrar's
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 271
Office, where they are still to be seen; but the associa-
tion retained certain portions themselves and established
what were called ‘‘model estates.’ These were not
measured off, and no boundaries fixed, as all the un-
granted land belonged to the association.
These estates are valled ‘‘Society’s ground,’’ or ‘So-
ciety’s Plantations’”’ in the Dutch charts of the colony ;
and in DOWNER’S map of Berbice they are marked as
“Colony Estates.” At the time of the capture of the
colony by the English, there were four of these estates
in cultivation in the hands of the association ; and it was
specially agreed that they should be treated as private
and not as government property. In the Aét of Capitu-
lation of the Colony of Berbice in September 1803, it
was stipulated in Article 2 that ‘‘The Plantations,
‘Lands, Manufactories, Workshops, Slaves, Effects and
“Possessions of the Berbice Association of whatever
“ nature shall be considered as Private Property in the
“same manner as is agreed to by the Capitulation with
“General Whyte in May, 1796.”
The estates reserved to the association under this
article were Dageraad, St. Jan, Dankbaurheid and
Sandvoort. The association carried on the cultivation
of these estates until the year 1818, when they sold
them to English proprietors.
From the earliest days of the occupation of Guiana by
the Dutch, there had been some English settlers, but
these were much increased in number after 1814, in which
year the colonies of Demerary, Essequibo and Berbice
were finally ceded to Great Britain by the Government
of the Netherlands. Soon after many estates were
bought by the merchants of London, Liverpool, Bristol
272 TIMEHRI.
and Glasgow; and in 1818 estates in Berbice seem to
have attracted the attention of British capitalists to a con-
siderable extent, and the Dutch Berbice Association availed
themselves of it to dispose of their estates. The purchas-
ers were Messrs. D. C. CAMERON, HENRY DAVIDSON,
and AENEAS BARKLY. The directors of the association
were represented on this occasion by their attorney, Mr.
THOM30N HANKEY of Mincing Lane, whose power of
attorney is recorded in the Registrar’s Office of Berbice.*
The following is the entry in the Highbury books of
this purchase :—
‘“ The Colony Estates, ‘November 1818,
“Plantation Account Proper Dr.
“To Thomson Hankey, 99.
‘For the purchase of the following Plantations from
“him in August last, viz., Pln. Sandvoort, Pin.
“© Dankbarheid, and Dageraad with all and every
“thing to the same belonging together, with 682
‘‘slaves, names and particulars as per Inventory
“ fleda—£66,000 @ f12. ... ee a ne 4792,000
‘Thomson Hankey, 99, Dr.
“To Davidsons, Barkly & Co.
‘For this sum paid him on signing of contract for
‘part payment of purchase of said estates—
4S Veppxroyorey (Cpt) ee is i ae £264,000
The partners in this purchase ciiled their interest in it
thus: Mr. D. C. CAMERON, joined by his friend Mr.
JOHN CAMERON (G/enev7s), took Sandvoort, which was
a large coffee estate in Canje. This they divided in two,
and made one half of it a sugar estate, which they called
* Nore.—A carefully compiled index to the records of this office has
been lately made. It was commenced by the late Registrar, Mr. A. B.
STEWART, and completed by the gentlemen now in charge, Mr.
O’MEaARA and Mr. JAMES WALLS.
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 273
Lochaber, after the head quarters of the CAMERONS in
Scotland. The remaining three estates were retained by
the other two partners: St. Jan and Dankbaarheid
were united and called Highbury after Mr. BARKLY’S
place Highbury Grove, near London; Dageraad was
continued in cultivation for some time, but eventually
was made over to government as an asylum for lepers.
Both Dageraad and Highbury were worked by water
power. The water from the river was admitted by a
large brick sluice some six or eight feet wide, which was
shut at high water, to retain the water till half ebb-tide,
when it was loosed out at a narrow sluice about two feet
wide, thus forming a mill-race in which the wheel worked
which drove the cane mill. One inconvenience of this
system was that the machinery could only be worked
when the tide suited, whether by day or night.
Highbury was the first estate in Berbice that employ-
ed coolies from India. It soon became evident that the
negroes after emancipation would not work as they had
before, and that if British Guiana were to continue a
sugar-producing colony, additional labourers must be in-
troduced from elsewhere.
So Messrs. DAVIDSONS, BARKLY & Co. joined by Mr.
Moss, of Liverpool, and some others, sent to India for
some of the surplus population of that teeming country ;
and in 1838 the ship Wvtby arrived from Calcutta with
the first lot of coolies! They were a very fine set of
people and did remarkably well at Highbury ; and at the
end of their indenture they returned to India carrying
large sums of money with them. Thus was commenced
that system of Indian immigration which has saved this
colony from abandonment and bids fair to establish a
274 TIMEHRI.
labour supply on such a footing as will ensure to the pre-
sent sugar estates something like an adequate return for
the enormous amount of capital, skill and energy that has
been expended onthem. Capital has followed the supply
of labour, and science is following capital. But success
is only now setting in, after an arduous struggle of over
forty years, during which most of the proprietors of
former days have disappeared.
By the disposal of their estates the “ Berbice Associa-
tion’? ceased to have any interest in the colony, which
soon became thoroughly British. A few coffee estates
remained in the hands of merchants in Holland up to the
time of emancipation ; but for some years past, not a sin-
gle estate in Berbice hasbeen owned by a Dutchman, and
the time seems to have arrived for revising the system of
Dutch laws guaranteed to the former owners of the col-
ony by the Articles of Capitulation. It surely is unrea-
sonable that Englishmen in a British colony, living under
the reign of a limited monarch, should be tied down to a
foreign law of inheritance forced on them eighty years
ago by a Dutch Republic which no longer exists.
Towards the head of Groote marri-paam the river has
a winding course of some ten miles,-and here the water
is deep. Here there were once ten or twelve. coffee
estates and two sugar estates, all now out of cultivation.
One of the former, plantation Bestendighied, belonged
to an enterprising Dutch planter named TIMMERS, who,
at the time of emancipation, thinking as many did then,
that the colony was about to enter on a course of pros-
perity under a happier system, extended his operations
at Bestendighted by adding a saw-mill to his coffee
machinery, and getting out a steam engine to work the
Tue BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. = 275
whole. The river Abary flows parallel to the Berbice, at
no great distance from its left bank. Mr. TIMMERS con-
neéted his’ estate with the Abary by extending his
middle-walk canal a couple of miles through the savan-
nah into the Abary. At this point the whole country is
an extensive swamp with a foot or two of water over the
surface, but a few miles higher up the land rises, and
there is a high reef on which is a forest of bullet-trees ;
and Mr. TIMMERS proposed cutting timber there, with
the assistance of some Warrau Indians who were then
living on the spot, and bringing it down the Abary, and
up his canal to the Bestendighied buildings, where it
would be sawn into plank by his newly ereéted steam
engine, which would thus be kept usefully employed
when there was no coffee crop going on. It was a well
conceived plan and for sometime things looked promis-
ing, but, alas! the want of labour, which in this colony
generally defeats every project, caused it to fail. Coffee
cultivation ceased to be profitable because the laborers
would not pick the crop, hard times set in, and poor
‘Polyglot Timmers’’ had to pass through the insolvent’s
court !*
A few miles above Bestendighied the river makes a
bold turn to the eastward, and consequently vessels sail-
ing up meet the wind right a head, and instead of running
before the wind, they have to beat against it, and their
progress is much retarded; hence this turn in the river
has got the name of ‘“‘ Humbug Point.” Beyond this, a
fine stretch opens up, running nearly due south for about
eight miles. This is called in the Dutch grants the
* This soubriquet he got from his habit of jumbling up so many
languages in his talk, Dutch, English, French and Creole Dutch.
LL
276 TIMEHRI.
’ or little sea reach. There was once
“ Klein marri-paam,’
an unbroken line of coffee estates along this on the east
bank. There are now only two estates in cultivation,
both in sugar. These are plantations Mara and
Ma Retraite, now the property of the Colonial Company,
but formerly owned by Messrs. GEORGE and JAMES
LAING, the leading merchants of Berbice, and the most
enterprising and energetic of our colonists. Emancipa-
tion took place in August 1834. This was followed by
the apprenticeship system, during which the negroes were
still under some control, and had to continue on their
estates and work certain regulated hours a day, for which
they received money wages. This was intended to ac-
custom the newly emancipated to habits of steady indus-
try and to prepare them for unlimited freedom.
Estates throve under the system ; the seasons happened
to be good, and the price of sugar ran up very high.
This gave a great impulse to speculation, the Dutch sold
out their coffee estates to the more enterprising English
who put them in sugar. The Messrs. LAING bought
plantation Mara, which was then in coffee, put it in
canes, and established a fine sugar estate. The appren-
ticeship system according to the emancipation aét was to
continue six years, but four only had elapsed when it was
prematurely terminated, and the negroes made entirely
free, and left to their own devices. From this time the
planters’ troubles commenced in earnest; prices fell,
labour was scarce and only to be had at a high rate,
Hard indeed was the struggle ; and many had to succumb.
The Messrs. LAING suffered severely, for they had em-
barked largely, having besides Mara, become interested
in Ma Retraite, Friends, Enfield, Smythfield and Albion.
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 277
Mr. JAMES LAING published a touching memorial on the
subject, * addressed to Lord GREY, showing that though
starting under the most favorable auspices, the invest-
ments of himself and partner had resulted in a loss of
£197,000 sterling, incurred from the rst August 1836 to
31st December 1847. He winds up his indignant pro-
test in these words, ‘‘ In such case no choice will be left
“to the memorialist than to abandon the cultivation of
‘his estates, and submit to their realisation at whatever
“sacrifice, in behalf of his creditors. But, he will deem
“it only due to himself, and to his family, and creditors
“to appeal to the justice of Parliament and the people
‘‘of England for redress and compensation for losses
‘which have been altogether occasioned by the Legisla-
‘tion and ats of the British Government.”
It was probably such cases as this, and there were
many of them, that at last startled the Colonial Office
into believing the truth of the reports of the state of the
West Indies, and of the necessity of at once coming to
their relief by sanétioning the importation of laborers
from the East, as otherwise the cultivation of sugar
would cease, the educated classes would abandon the
colonies, and the manumission of the negroes prove a
dead failure. Earl GREY tells us as much in his book
“The Colonial Policy of Lord JOHN RUSSELL’S Govern-
ment.” He says (page 63.) :—
‘This prosperity, and the welfare of all classes of the
“inhabitants of these colonies, depend upon their being
* A similar memorial was also sent in by the late R. M. Jones Esq.,
of Pln. Houston, Demerary.
A beautiful marble monument to the memory of Mr. Grorce LaInG
has been erected in the Court House, New Amsterdam.
LL 2
278 TIMEHRI.
“enabled to continue to advantage the cultivation of su-
“gar, not merely because this branch of industry consti-
“tutes their chief source of wealth, but because, if it
‘““were to cease, there would no longer be any motive
‘for the residence of the European inhabitants in a cli-
‘‘mate uncongenial to their constitution, while it is cer-
“tain that they could not be withdrawn without giving
‘an almost fatal check to the civilisation of the Negroes.”’
Beyond JZara there is no estate in cultivation, and in
passing up the river we leave sugar estates and their
cares behind us. At the head of the Klein marri-paam,
and commanding a view down this fine reach, is the site
of the “ Brand-waght,” literally, watch fire. This was a
military outpost, of which there were several throughout
the colony and always, placed at an important bend of
the river, or at the junétion of a tributary, as at the
mouth of the Virogne. PINCKARD mentions that he
found one such fort, the garrison of which consisted of
30 old Dutch soldiers, all in a state of intoxication. It
was to these inland posts that the colonists looked for
proteétion from any insurrection, and it was one of the
stipulations, in the surrender of the colony, that the cap-
tors should keep these posts garrisoned for the proteétion
of the inhabitants. There is one in Canje in very good
preservation, called ost Orototo, and another at the
entrance of the Icoorowa, where until quite lately there
was a twenty pounder gun which has been recently
taken away by the unscrupulous master of a ship joading
timber there. There is also a smal] redoubt at the mouth
of Bartica creek with an embrasure for one gun.
From the Brand-waght the river (going upwards) turns
abruptly towards the west; then after making a bold
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 279
sweep, returns to the east, thus forming a considerable
peninsula. Across the isthmus thus formed, a canal
was commenced called the ‘ Brand-waght canal.” This
was one of the many “ projected canals’’ we find in the
old Dutch charts of the colony ; but this was more than
projected, it was cut half way, -and estates laid out on
its bank, when the colony changed owners and the canal
was never finished.
Following the river along its bend to the westward we
leave the sea reaches, and from this turn, the water is
clear and deep, and seldom salt. At a bend to the
south opposite the site of plantation New Dageraad, is
a large sand-bank extending from the east bank more
than half way across the river, and on this there is, at
low tide, only a few feet of water. There is however
a deep channel on the west side; but this sand-bank
should have a beacon on it for the guidance of ships.
This is the only sand-bank in the river for a hundred
miles up. Near this is an “itabo” which is said to com-
municate with the river Abary.
Some creole settlers are to be met with here at the
old estate Hoorn, and also further on at Yacatta. Their
presence is betrayed by a few aa trees showing
through the bush.
It was at Yacatta that the late Mr. COSTENBADER
lived, whose house was a convenient resting place for
travellers passing up or down the river. It had a pleas-
ing appearance, as the space between the house and the
river was a green lawn of short grass, which was caused
by the grazing of a few cattle on it. When the bush is
cut down, it soon grows up again, unless there are cattle
to graze upon the land, then a short grass or turf takes
280 TIMEHRI.
its place, which gives a civilised look to the homestead.
It is all bush again now. Mr. COSTENBADER was very
successful in capturing manatees, which abound about
here, and his house was full of harpoons, spears, and
tackle for catching them.
The surface of the land all the way up above Yacatta
is higher than the level of high water and there is natu-
ral drainage, but the soil is still alluvial.
There is an estate near this marked on the map Meso-
potamia. It does not appear to have been in cultivation
for a very long time. It is the last estate laid down ina
curious old Dutch map, now in the library of the Royal
Agricultural Society. Lower down than Mesopotamia
there appears in this map no signs of a settlement of
any description, no plantation, no town, nothing to show
that the country had ever been visited by human beings,
except at the mouth of the river, below Crab Island is
marked ‘the new Brand-waght.” Most likely this is
what was afterwards called the one gun battery. Unfor-
tunately there is no date to this map, nor the name of
any publisher, only nine coats of arms, perhaps of the
leading colonists of that day. It would have been inter-
esting to know the date of this map, showing as it does
that the occupancy of the country by the colonists at
that period, was confined exclusively to the upper self-
drained districts.*
* This map was probably made in 1720, when the Berbice Associa-
tion was formed, for the purpose of extending the cultivation of the
colony, and the coats of arms are those of the nine directors of that
period. Their names are mentioned in Hartsinck (page 519) as being
directors during the years 1720 to 1738. This company by paying the
French captors of the colony the balance of the ransom money, became
THE ‘BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 281
Proceeding up the river we find both banks covered
with a thick forest of trees, enlivened here and there by
some flowering creepers, such as the various species of
Bignonia, Alamanda, Echites, the gorgeous cara-cara
or supple-jack (Norantea guianensis;, and the curious
Marcgravia umbellata. The graceful and picturesque
manicole (Zuterpe edulis) is frequent, also another
palm with a larger leaf, probably the Zoo or the tooroo;
and in one place there is a clump of tree ferns growing
close to the edge of the water and attaining a height of
fifteen or twenty feet. The view up some of the long
reaches (or hooks as they are called) affords fine vistas,
but on the whole the journey is monotonous, and the
traveller looks impatiently for the first sight of the high
land on the Bartica downs, where the open country com-
mences. After passing Bamboo Creek, so called from
some indigenous bamboos growing there, we come to
the Bartica Creek, called in some maps Baracarabana
Creek, a navigable stream of some size, and immediately
beyond, the land rises, the bush ceases, and the open
savannah is seen from the river.
The banks of the river here (on the east side) are
steep, and steps have been cut in the hard clay to assist
in ascending them; the highest point is twenty-five feet
above the level of the water. On this spot a house has
been lately erected, commanding a most extensive pros-
possessors of the whole country, and by importing additional labourers,
were able to extend the cultivation by empoldering the alluvial land of
the lower district. This map was evidently made for the guidance of
the new association, and not published for sale. The seat of govern-
ment was not changed to the coast for some seventy years after this, al-
though Fort St. Andrew was established and garrisoned in 1746.
282 TIMEHRI.
pect over the downs towards the north, east, and south,
and as the open country extends all the way over to the
Canje, there is generally a cool breeze blowing from the
north-east. The grazing here is particularly good and the
site is an admirable one for a cattle farm on the largest
scale ; the extent of pasture is almost boundless and the
water is always fresh. The late Mr. ALPIN GRANT had
some fine cattle here; but his executors sold them on
account of the difficulty of looking after them owing to
the distance trom town, two tides. That difficulty is
now removed, as the river steamers pass the spot twice
a week, bringing it within five hours of New Amster-
dam. There is good shooting in the savannah, snipe
at times.in the low places, pigeons in the bush, and
parrots all the year round. About the creek are bush
hogs and labba.
Across the river, on the west bank, at De Velde, was
the residence of the late Mr. SANDERS, who had a fine
cattle farm there. His family have lately moved higher
up the river. There are the remains of a stelling project-
ing into the river, with a bathing house at the end of it.
Mr. SANDERS held peculiar religious views and advocated
total immersion in baptism.
At Bourderoz, nearly opposite De Velde, there lived
a Dutch family of the name of MANDHAR, natives of
Holland. They had a small farm here, but to the usual
indoor occupations of a boviander, such as making
hammocks and fancy basket work, plaiting palm leaves
for hats, and so on, the MANDHARS added the trade of a
joiner. They had a turning lathe and made furniture of
a very good description. ‘The chairs they made were in
great demand, not only in the river but in New Amster-
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 283
dam; the frames were made of the white wood of the
lana, and the bottoms of tibiceri from the eta palm.
The MANDHARS owned a good deal of land in this
neighbourhood which is now occupied by their descend-
_ ants of the third generation.
Beyond Bourderot the river turns abruptly to the
south east ; and near this, in the centre of the river, is a
small whirlpool, caused probably by the formation of
the reach, which is contraéted at each end and expanded
in the middle, and this causes a ‘‘turnwater,” but the
natives say that there is a hole in the bottom of the
river.
We now come to the site of Fort Nassau and the
ct devant town of New Amsterdam. The place is en-
tirely overgrown and there is little to distinguish it from
the surrounding bush, except some tall cabbage palms,
which not being indigenous, always indicate the handi-
work of man. There is a thick growth of badouri pim-
pler at the water side which has to be cut through and
then the bank is reached, which rises steeply up some
fifteen feet to a level terrace or esplanade the whole
length of the town, on the margin of the river. This
seems to have been the principal street and is still in
good order ; where it is crossed by a draining trench
there is a neatly turned brick bridge. At present there
is only one house remaining, and that is in ruin, but has
evidently been a fine mansion, of more imposing appear-
ance than most of the houses in the more modern town
of New Amsterdam. It is built entirely of brick, and a
flight of semi-circular brick steps leads up to the
entrance, which is wide and lofty, and where, until lately,
there was a scroll with the name of Buse on it. A range
MM
284 TIMEHRI.
oi side buildings, also of brick, forms a court yard, which
at present is occupied by a forest of papaw trees, which
always seem to delight in growing among the ruins of
old brick work. The rooms of the house, though not
large were very lofty, and SCHOMBURGK, who visited
this spot in 1835 speaks of ‘‘ the glazed and richly orna-
‘“ mented windows.” ‘These are no longer to be seen,
and what little remains of this fine old mansion will soon
disappear, for the roots and branches of trees have forced
themselves into the brick walls, and the neighbours do
not hesitate to go and help themselves to the bricks
whenever they want them. The site of the town seems
to have been well chosen and no doubt there were good
reasons for selecting this spot for the capital of the
colony. It faces a fine reach of the river, where there is
generally a good breeze.
Near the town, at the junction of Toorany creek with
the Berbice was Fort Nassau, of which Hartsinck gives
us a drawing showing its appearance in 1682. He also
gives a ground plan of the intrenchments, with the posi-
tion of the several buildings and fortifications. These
are in his book ‘‘ Description of Guiana and the Wild
‘“Coast.’* All that remains to mark this spot are the
graves of its inhabitants, which are in very good order,
with the inscriptions on the tombs quite legible. It
would be interesting to have the place cleared so that the
lines of the old town and fort could be traced, a few days’
labour of the cutlass would doit. Some fine lime trees
have survived those who planted them, and are in full
bearing, and some venerable old tamarind trees remain
to tell of former days, and doubtless if the place were
* Published in 1770.
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 285
cleared many other fruit trees would be found. This
should be the site of the residence of the river magistrate.
It is nearly central and when once cleared could be
easily kept in order and made a very suitable centre of
civilisation.
Nearly adjoining the town, a little higher up was a
brickery. Here also are several lime trees, which seem
very hardy and once established take care of themselves
and survive all other cultivation.
For some miles above the old town, on both sides of
_the river are estates which have not very long been out of
cultivation, and are now occupied by the descendants of
the former owners, who hold possession by titles more or
less defe€tive. The bread-nut seems to have been a
favorite tree and thrives well, and generally marks the
waterside of a boviander.
At Hitia are the Sand Hills, which supply the white
sand used for making mortar. It is here the coast
deposit, or fluvio-marine alluvium of geologists, ends,
and the sand beds and clay deposits begin. This traét is
marked 2 in BROWN’S geological map and extends in-
wards as far as the granite region. These sand hills are
supposed to mark the line of the gradual receding sea of
a former era. The open savannahs on both sides of the
river all the way from Bartica upwards, though well
raised above the level of the water, belong to the coast
alluvium, or more correétly, to the river loam deposit ;
and it is only at Hitia that the second geological belt
commences. This traét consists mostly of extensive dry
sandy savannahs, some forty to one hundred feet above the
level of the river, interseéted by many large rivers, on the
borders of which are generally dense forests of timber trees.
MM 2
286 TIMEHRI.
These extensive dry savannahs are a special feature in
the upper Berbice distri€t, they extend nearly to the
banks of the Demerary on one side, and to the Corentyn
on the other; the soil is so loose and porous that the
rain never lodges but passes direétly through, so that the
surface is always dry. It is probably owing to the large
extent of these dry plains that the air of the upper Ber-
bice is so free from miasma, and the climate so
healthy. What BROWN says of the savannahs of the far
off interior of the country, is quite applicable to these Ber-
bice savannahs or downs as they are now usually called :
“the views from the savannahs have a beauty and singu-
“larity of their own, and it stirs one with a sense of
“boundless freedom to stand upon a knoll amidst one,
‘and view the grassy plain fading away to the horizon
“in the distance and melting gradually, as it were, into
“the atmosphere.” ‘This feeling is shared by all travel-
lers who visit this part of the country, and the pleasur-
able sensation is enhanced by the striking resemblance
of the scene tothe commons and downs of England; not
only are the undulations of the land similar, but the
stunted bushes, here and there, may readily be taken for
the English gorse or broom.
The grass that covers the surface grows in tufts with
spaces between them, and has a dry wiry look, but the
cattle thrive upon it, and itis said to be very similar to
what is found in the cattle distri€ts of Venezuela; and a
recent traveller remarked that these downs remind him
‘of the pasture lands of Australia. When these savannahs
are burnt off, which they generally are every dry season,
there is a fine spring of young grass.
The flora of the savannahs is also peculiar, and with
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 287
the exception of a few clumps of palm trees, has nothing
tropical in its appearance. The bushes are dwarfed and look
stunted, and the leaves of some of them are so dry and
harsh, that they are used as sandpaper. The flowers also
have an English look about them. There isa beautiful little
terrestrial orchid with a bulbous root that grows amidst
the tufts of grass ; its leaves are long and narrow and so
much like the blades of grass that surround them, that
the plant would escape observation were it not for its
pretty little pink flower. A small quail, called deyseroo,
abounds here.
The origin of these open savannahs has been variously
accounted for. One theory is that they were form-
erly covered with trees which have been destroyed by
fire. This however is not likely, for the burning of the
bush has the effect of promoting the growth of vegetation.
The most probable cause is this. The whole country
has, at some remote period, been submerged. This all
geologists are agreed upon. On the subsidence of
the water into the valleys where the rivers now flow,
the higher parts of. the land have been left bare and
sterile ; what surface mould may have been on them
has been washed down into the low parts, forming
a rich soil in which trees have grown, and which by the
constant addition of decaying leaves is annually enriched
and is extending laterally on to the savannahs. The
higher parts, having been left bare, have only produced a
partial covering of coarse grass, and in some places not
even grass has grown, the surface being quite bare and
hard, and occasionally strewn with iron ore in rounded
nodules. The tendency of the bush is to encroach upon
the savannahs, to an extent that is very marked.
288 TIMEHRI.
The Hitia savannah is a pretty spot, and has long
been the site of a settlement of Arawaaks, well behaved
peaceable people, appreciating the benefits of civilisa-
tion, sending their children to school, and attending the
services of the Church of England mission, which has
been established here for thirty years. There is a de-
cent little ‘church, St: Peter's, onthe top or thesia
which is about to be rebuilt lower down for the conve-
nience of the old and feeble.
The pine-appies grown here by the Indians are most
delicious, quite as juicy as the common pine of the coun-
try with the fine rich flavour of hot-house pines at
home. All the Indians at Hitia raise poultry, and one of
them guinea birds which is not usual. A path leads
from Hitia to the head of the Abary, a distance of about
five miles. |
About a mile beyond Hitia is the old estate Przendship
where the river steamer halts for the night, and where
the river magistrate holds his monthly courts. It is at
the house of Mr. PATOiR, who once had charge of the
school at Hitia and is still useful as a warden of the
church. He has been resident here for some twenty
years and his farm has done well, his cattle having in-
creased from six cows to a herd of eighty head, all
fine animals doing credit to the pasturage of the savan-
nah, where they graze during the day, coming home
quietly in the afternoon to take a drink in the river, and
then lying down about their master’s house, giving the
farm a cheerful and thriving appearance, There are five
other farms in the neighbourhood of the same kind.
At Manacaboury waterside, travellers land to walk
across the savannah to the mouth of the Virogne, which
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 289
can be done in about an hour and a half, while it takes
four hours to go round in a boat, so much does the river
wind. ‘The path leads first through a manicole swamp,
then rises abruptly up a steep escarpment to the high
ground above. This is the usual formation; the high
land of the savannah rarely extends to the edge of the
river, there being nearly always a terrace or plateau of flat
level ground between the river and the savannah, more
or less wide, of good soil; and beyond this there is a
perpendicular cliff, from the top of which the savannah
commences. There is no gradual slope from the river
to the high land, but the rise is abrupt in steps. In two
or three places the lower terrace is wanting and the
river washes the foot of the cliff, but generally there is a
tract of level ground that intervenes between the river
and the high land, and this level traét is composed of
good soil suited for cultivation and is very often swampy ;
for the water is kept in by a kind of natural embank-
ment, the edge next the river being generally higher
than the level of the surface inside. This is probably
caused by a deposit of soil by the river when in flood.
The same formation occurs on the coast. The large sa-
vannahs are generally surrounded by a high mora, or
bullet-tree reef next the river. This forms a natural
empolder, which prevents the savannahs from running
dry ; and thus is preserved that water supply so valuable
for navigation purposes. In the upper districts these
swampy levels are mostly occupied by the useful mani-
cole. These elegant palms grow there to the. exclusion
of all other trees and form a scene of beauty only ex-
celled by a forest of bamboos. And fortunate it is for
the inhabitants of these parts that nature has furnished
290 TIMEHRI.
such a supply of manicoles, for it is the principal ma-
terial of which their houses are made. The manicole,
split up, is used for wattling the sides of the house, for
the floors, and also for the laths on which the thatch is
tied.
The word manacaboury means plenty of manicoles—
caboury signifying plenty or abundance. The names of
places given by the Indians are generally taken from
some tree or animal, with a suffix such as caboury,
abounding, cabra a creek, oény or abo water, as Etoony,
a river full of zta trees; Mahaicony, a river where the
mahooka is found; Caycooti-cabra, tiger creek, and
so on.
Manacaboury was once the head quarters of the Ara-
‘waaks of the river, and the soil being very suitable for
the growth of cassava, their great paiwarri feasts were
held here.
Opposite Manacaboury on the east bank is a fine
creek called Kimbia. It rises in the savannah and flows
through a pretty lake, Abaribana, which used to be a
favorite resort for pleasure parties from the old town.
Souari nuts are found in Kimbia. Beyond Kimbia is
Ebeni, another nice creek with sandy bottom. The river
here makes so sharp a turn that steamers are apt to run
into the bush unless their speed is reduced. ‘There is an
old cocoa plantation near this, called Dornboom, where
the cocoa trees have grown into a forest. This estate
is claimed as private property, by right of inheritance,
by persons living in New Amsterdam; but their title has
not yet been admitted and the place is held by the
government as crown land.
At the junétion of the Virogne the Berbice expands.
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 291
At this point there was formerly a fort, a church and
a minister’s residence. All have disappeared. The
Virogne is a very fine river and extends almost to the
banks of the Demerary, draining a large traét of country,
mostly savannah. There were several estates on its
banks, of which Dex Arend was one. This was visited
in 1796.by Dr. PINCKARD, who rode on horseback with
a party from Hitia across the Manacaboury savannah.
He must have crossed the Kaderabisce creek, though
he does not mention it. There are still the remains of
a bridge over that creek. The Den Arend negroes,
178 in number, were removed in 1818 by Messrs. N.
WINTER & Co. to their estate the /rzends in the lower
distriét. The change of climate was fatal to many of
them.
About an hour’s pull up Virogne is the Mattara mis-
sion, a beautiful spot. It has long been under the charge
of Plymouth Brethren and is the largest Indian settle-
ment in the river. Some fine coffee trees grow here ;
and the cultivation might easily be extended and kept
in order, for the soil is a loose sand in which weeds do
not grow. ;
A path leads from the mission to the savannah,
about half an hour’s walk, through one of those cu-
ia
rious spots called ‘‘moories,” so different from the
bush on one side and the savannah on the other, be-
tween which they are generally placed. Moorie is the
name of a tree which grows in these spots, but the word
is applied to the place itself, just as in England a
heath is called from the plant of that name. The trees
that grow ina moorie are all of small size and peculiar
appearance; no grass or weeds are seen, only a pretty
NN
292 TIMEHRI.
white lichen and some moss on the ground—altogether
these spots have almost a mysterious appearance, as if,
as has been said, they were kept in order by fairies.
Above the junction of the Virogne, the Berbice narrows
considerably, with high land on the right side (going up).
At Peerboom, on the top of a hill 69 feet high, stands
the house built by the late Mr. T. B. DUGGIN, who lived
here many years. From this up to Coomacka is the
most populous part of the river, having numerous settlers,
nearly all creoles, on both banks. These are mostly the
descendants of the gang of plantation Karel and William's
Hoof, which was in cultivation up to the time of freedom.
There were shipments of coffee from this estate in 1834,
since which the cultivation has been given up. The
labourers however did not leave the district, having
a strong local attachment to the place, but settled on
land of their own in the neighbourhood. The manager’s
house, a good building with a double flight of brick steps
leading up to it, was long the residence of Mr. SANDERS,
before he moved down to De Velde, and here also he had
a Stelling, jutting into the river, ending in a bathing (or
baptising) house! It is only last year that this house
was pulled down, and yet the place is already so com-
pletely overgrown that it is hardly recognisable.
In this district, which is called the Lana district, is a
chapel and school in charge of the London Missionary
Society. There are some good houses, in one of which the
magistrate’s courts are held, and four or five retail pro-
vision shops. The Lana district ends at Coomacka,
where the river takes a bend and the land rises consider-
ably. The view here is very fine, especially if approached
early in the morning, or in the afternoon, when the sun
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 293
is low. At the waterside is the mission chapel, and resi-
dence, some Indian houses, and the fine old silk-cotten
tree which gives name to the distri€t; and the wooded
heights behind complete the scene. This was once a
cocoa estate, the former owners of which lie buried here,
in tombs which are in good preservation.
The cocoa trees have grown to a height of thirty or
forty feet, and are in full bearing and the ground is
strewn with the fallen pods which no one seems to care
to pick up. There is a path here leading up to the
downs ; but most travellers prefer going round in a boat
to the Etoony, and so reaching the downs, which is one
of the choicest spots in the river, and commands the
admiration of visitors from the extensive view and fine
undulation of the land and the English character of the
landscape. A pull of an hour and a half up the Etoony
brings you to the open savannah where are several Indian
settlements.
Before reaching the Etoony, the Wikky falls in from
the east. This is an important tributary bringing in the
drainage from the country lying between the Berbice and
Canje. It is a deep, navigable river, and on its banks
are several Indian settlements, prettily situated, and a
well conducted mission and school of the London Mis-
sionary Society. The land between the Wikky and the
Berbice is a high level plateau, covered with green heart
trees forming a dense forest of many miles in extent.
Proceeding up the Berbice, and passing the Parway,
a fine creek on the left, and the Paripi on the right, we
come to the Kibbiribiry creek, famed for the healing
quality of its waters. It was a favorite resort as a sana-
torium in the Dutch times, and wonderful tales are told
NN 2
204 TIMEHRI.
of the cures effefted by bathing in its waters. It has a
white sandy Lottom, and the water is icy cold. There
are many of these “cold creeks,’ and no doubt a resi-
dence of a couple of weeks amongst them, with frequent
bathing and a life in the open air, together with the cold
nights—and these are intensely cold—would be very
beneficial in bracing the nerves of an invalid.
A few miles higher up is Eberoabo, also a cold creek.
It was here that PETER CAMPBELL resided, conduéting
a large woodcutting establishment, and loaded ships
with greenheart timber for export. Up to this point the
Berbice is navigable for large vessels, drawing 13 to
14 feet of water, but beyond this the river is much filled
up with sand brought into it from the hilly country
around, and in dry seasons there is sometimes scarcely
water enough to float a tent-boat, though during the
rains there is a depth of eight or ten feet all the way
up to the falls.*
In 1839 a steamer called the Lerdice was built at the
Canje saw-mill, and her first trip was up the river to
Eberoabo with Sheriff WHINFIELD and a large party
from New Amsterdam. They were back within three
days.
Travellers wishing to visit the falls should leave the
steamer at Eberoabo and proceed in a light tent boat,
accompanied by Indians in wood-skins, which may be
required if the river is low, as it very often is in dry
* The steamer Guiana with a Government party on board, went
about five miles beyond Eberoabo creek and there was then a
depth of thirty feet of water there; but that was in September 1883, and
the rains having continued later than usual the river had not run so
low as it often does.
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 205
seasons. From Eberoabo it takes about five days to
reach the falls of Itabroo, and half that time to return.
A little above Eberoabo, on the left, is Cariaqua creek,
with blueish water and remarkable for having no fish in
it. The White Hill, on the right, rises straight up from
the river’s edge, a perpendicular cliff of white sand
nearly 100 feet high, from the top of which there is an
extensive panoramic view. Close by, near the foot of
the hill, is the Youa-coory creek, a fine stream naviga-
ble for two days, forming a path to the Demerara.
The Berbice from here varies very much; in some
places it is narrow, winding in short turns, and deep;
in others it spreads out to a great width with only
a few inches of water over the sandy bottom. Again,
near Mappa Lake it forms numerous false passages or
culs de sac, which have been former channels, now
deserted. The country around is hilly and the first signs
of rocks are now seen; just a little above Boura-hara these
form a ledge across the river, causing a small rapid,
leaving, however, a narrow passage near the east bank.
The banks are now steep and rocky and very picturesque;
at one place, looking up a long reach with high land,
the distance well wooded, the scenery is not unlike the
passage of the Trossachs near Loch Katrine. A similar
resemblance was noticed in the Cuyooni by Mr. CAMp-
BELL.
Yariki creek has steep banks on both sides, looks
like a Scotch burn, and appears to run with considerable
force when full, as it has brought a quantity of sand
into the river; its waters, however, are quite clear and not
ochreous as stated by SCHOMBURGK. The river here is
very shallow, being much filled up with sand, so much so
296 TIMEHRI.
that many travellers have had to turn back at this spot ;
which is the more disappointing as immediately beyond
are the falls of Idure Wadde, which are very interesting.
They are in a small creek which enters the Berbice from
the east bank. The following is from the diary of a
recent traveller written on the spot :—
““We have succeeded in passing the flats and are at Idure Wadde !
We were soon ashore and wading (barefoot) up this beautiful glen.
The excitement is increased by spying a fine haimara apparently
asleep in the clear stream. The Indian was sent back to the boat for
his bow and arrows, and he soon shot the fish, but it struggled so
violently that the buck, for fear of breaking his arrow, let it go, when
the fish sped away up the creek with the arrow sticking in him, and it was
only by means of a pointed stick cut on the spot that he was got
ashore and landed. He measured 2 feet 6 inches. The falls are very
‘beautiful and this would be a charming spot for a pic-nic. The creek
at the top issues from the bush, the trees on each side nearly meet
overhead, and the stream, which is about twenty feet wide, roars down
Over a succession of rocks which divide it into several channels at first,
but which unite again below, and brawls along over a rocky and sandy
bed tillit reaches the river. The total descent we estimated at thirty feet,
perhaps over-estimated it, but it certainly appears more than twelve
feet, which Schomburgk calls it; the first leap alone is that. Probably
the river was higher when Schomburgk was here. The water is very
cold and the bathing delicious.”
There is, near the mouth of this creek, one of those
curious Indian rock carvings, of the deeply cut kind.
At Marlissa, an hour’s pull above Idure Wadde, is a
range of granite rocks stretching across the river and
covered with Indian hieroglyphics of the shallow kind.
Copies of several of these figure on the cover of
Timehri.t
+ For an account of these rock carvings by the present writer
see a pamphlet published by Judd & Co., Doctors Common, London,
entitled ‘Indian Pictured Rocks of Guiana,”
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 297
It is at Marlissa that the rapids commence, and the
boat has to be hauled up by ropes. There are eight
rapids in succession, and it takes about four hours to
surmount them. After passing the last and most formi-
dable, the river forms a small lake, almost circular, the
entrance to which is through a narrow passage about ten
yards wide, with rocks on both sides. At the head of
this lake the river turns sharply to the left and the falls
of Itabroo are seen and heard.
There is a picture of these falls in SCHOMBURGK'’S
“twelve views”. The scenery is picturesque and interest-
ing ; and a cool breeze blows over the surface of the lake.
The pretty lake with its sandy shores is surrounded by
high wooded hills, which in the distance rise to a height
of eight hundred or a thousand feet. A naturalist might
spend a week here to great advantage. The flora is
peculiar, and there is a great variety of choice ferns on
the hill-sides. The glossy ibis, the sunbird, and other
rare birds are to be met with; and otters abound in the
river.
Itabroo is in latitude 4° 49 N., longitude 57° 19 W;
its level is 130 feet above that of the sea.
Few amateur travellers have gone higher up the Ber-
bice than the falls of Itabroo. The explorers Sir ROBERT
SCHOMBURGK and BARRINGTON BROWN have done
so, and toiled away for several weeks, but making very
slow progress. They had to ascend numerous rapids
and cataraéts and to cut their way through overhanging
woods and fallen trees, and to contend against difficul-
ties of various kinds, until by dint of perseverance they
reached a spot where an Indian path from Corentyn
crosses the river and leads on to Essequibo. Both these
298 TIMEHRI.
travellers explored this path and found the distance
between the Essequibo and the Berbice only ten miles,
and no sign of the Demerara River.
The Berbice is navigable for some fifty miles beyond
this path, but no European has ever visited its source,
which is said to be in latitude 3° 14’ N.
The large extent of country watered by the river Ber-
bice and its tributaries, is but thinly inhabited. The
aboriginal Indians, once numerous, are now but few in
number. Some families of Arawaaks still remain and
some Ackawois, but no true Caribs.
The creole blacks are mostly confined to the Lana
distriét of Berbice and the upper Canje. These are all
natives of the place, to which they are much attached,
having lived there all their lives. The mode of life in
the upper distriéts suits their tastes and constitutions ;
and they are very healthy and not subjeét to fevers.
Of the class of bovianders and small farmers there
are several families, living on their farms, with all the
comforts of life about them. This is a class that might
be increased with advantage to the colony, particularly
now that steamers are running on the river and
communication with town is easy and_ frequent.
There must be many industriously inclined people in the
towns, leading a very poor, and perhaps disreputable life,
who, up the river, would greatly improve their condition
and become respectable colonists, contributing to the
general prosperity of the colony, instead of being a drag»
upon it. People up the river can work with their own
hands in a way they can never do in town. The
necessaries of life are easily attained; food and shelter
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 299
are remarkably cheap. Small farms are soon established.
The grazing is excellent and extensive, perhaps too
extensive, for many cattle have been lost to their owners
by straying away in the savannahs, where they are now
running wild; but that is the fault of their owners, for
the cattle, if brought home regularly, become very tame.
The milk of the cows is very rich, and the butter from it
excellent. New Amsterdam was once supplied with
fresh butter of the best description from the small farm
of Ma chaumiére. Poultry thrives remarkably well and
increases rapidly, and a ready market for it is always
to be had on board the steamers.
The land, when once cleared of the bush, is easily
cultivated and gives excellent crops for two or three
seasons; it has natural drainage and no kokers are
required. The cultivation of arrowroot has been com-
menced and seems well suited to the soil, and likely to
be profitable. For such trades as boat-building, the
river district affords great facilities.
If facilities were afforded to persons of small means
for settling in these upper districts, it would be a great
boon to the colony at large, and would help to diminish
the pauperism which exists to a far greater extent than
it ought, in a country like this possessing such great
natural advantages. The best way to assist the poor
is to put them in a way to support themselves.
As to “developing the resources of the country’, the
more important object is to enable a certain class, that
now finds it very difficult to do so, to earn a decent live-
lihood.
But then the present crown-land regulations must be
altered and their stringency relaxed. These regulations
oOo
300 TIMEHRI.
have been framed, not so much with a view to protecting
the crown-lands, as to repelling any attempt at the
colonisation of the interior of the country, and so con-
fining all population to the coast and the neighbourhood
of the sugar-estates. This may have been a necessary
policy at one time, but is scarcely so now. The sugar-
estate will always be the best market for the iabour of the
strong and able-bodied agricultural labourer; and the
danger of his being drawn away from his proper sphere
is a good deal exaggerated. Besides, other classes are
entitled to some consideration; and there are many
who are quite unsuited for the work of a sugar-estate
who yet are industriously inclined and would earn a
comfortable livelihood for themselves and their aged
relatives in the upper districts, if facilities were afforded
them. We hear a good deal about the conservancy
of the forests; one would like to hear something of
their being made of some use. Instead of the present
elaborate and costly system of surveys and diagrams,
a much more simple system might be adopted.
A certain distri€t might be selected for the purpose,
and intending settlers might apply to the river magis-
trate, who would allot them a piece a land for building
a house, and a few acres for making a field, according
to the size of the family. He would see the paals plant-
ed and take care that the limits were not exceeded. A
moderate rental should be paid, and the tenant have a
right of renewal of his occupancy on payment of a fee.
It is quite possible, if something of this kind were
once established, that colonists from the West Indian
islands might come and settle here, and so increase the
population, which isso much wanted. The facility af-
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 301
forded by our rivers for conveying produce to a market
gives this colony an advantage over more mountainous
countries.
There is another class which might be benefited by
an occasional resort to the upper distri€t, and that is
the residents in town who are closely confined to one
spot by their business or official duties, but who would
gladly avail themselves of a change of scene for the
benefit of their health, could it be had without inconve-
nience. Something in the nature of a “ watering place”
is much wanted in this colony, and might save many an
invalid from falling into serious illness, requiring an ex-
pensive change to Barbados or to England. The steam-
ers now plying on our rivers would reach a suitable spot
for such an establishment in five or six hours. The Dutch
used to go periodically to the “cold creeks”’ ; but these are
very far up, and the sand-flies on the dry savannahs are al-
most unbearable. Somewhere in the neighbourhood of the
old town would suit very well; the locality is healthy and
there are objects of interest within the reach of a short
excursion. A few cheap houses might be put up for the
accommodation of visitors, who would go up by one
steamer and return by the next, and thus get a few days’
recreation with very little trouble.* Expensive town-
built houses would not be required; such as the
bovianders live in would answer the purpose very well
and are very cheap. A house fifty feet by twenty,
built in the usual style, wattled with manicoles, thatched
with dallabana leaves, with sleeping rooms upstairs, could
* The steamer, having a handsome subsidy, should take passengers at
a minimum rate of fare.
00 2
302 TIMEHRI.
be built for fifty dollars, materials and labour included.
The bathing in the river is good; but for the accommo-
dation of ladies and children, or for those who are not
good swimmers, floating baths could be arranged some-
what similar to those on the Rhine, which rise and fall
with the tide, so that the water is always at the same
level. This could be easily effected by means of two
rafts of light wood, eight or ten feet asunder, supporting
a platform suspended between them under water, at the
required depth, over which the river would constantly
flow. As the river is deep close to the bank a short stage
from the shore would reach the raft, and the bath be
accessible at any hour or at any state of the tide.
Besides these minor objects, there afe two indus-
tries which might be conducted with advantage in the
upper distri€t of Berbice, on a scale that would probably
be profitable, and would rescue this fine country from
the reproach of being desolate and unproduétive. These
are cattle-farming and wood-cutting ; but both should be
carried on upon a scale far greater than has been
hitherto attempted.
As to the raising of cattle, it would not be difficult to
stock these downs with cattle, by importing several
hundred cows and heifers from Venezuela. They could
be brought by sea in schooners direét and landed on the
spot. The voyage is not long, and if steamers were
used would only be a few days. In this way the raising
of horned castle could be commenced on a footing sim-
ilar to the ‘‘ gigantic cattle-farms established by the
“ Brazilian government” as described by Mr. IM ‘THURN
in his paper on ‘‘Opening up the Country,” prefixed to
the catalogue of the Exhibition of 1879. In that paper
—.
THE BERBICE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 303
Mr. iM THURN proposed establishing cattle-farms on a
large scale on the Roopoonooni and Takootoo savannahs.
But surely it would be better to make use of the country
nearer home, within a few hours of a market. And
as to labourers, probably some of our own Indians might
be trained to the work, and make as good cow-herds
as the peons of the Spanish Main. Why should not
Berbice have an export trade in cattle as well as
Venezuela or Porto Rico?
As regards woodcutting ; there is a forest of green-
heart growing on a high plateau of level land, lying
between the right bank of the river Berbice and the left
bank of the Wikky creek, which has attracted the atten-
tion of several woodcutters from time to time, but which
has always been given up on account of the distance
from the water. The supply of timber was ample,
but the expense of hauling too great for small gangs.
It might be worth while to have this traét examined, and
if it is found to be extensive and likely to furnish em-
ployment for a large gang for several years, an en-
terprising woodcutter, with sufficient capital, might
possibly make terms with government for a grant of
the traét for a long period, paying instead of a
rent per acre, a royalty on the amount of timber
shipped, in consideration of his laying down a temporary
railway or, by means of timber carts or other me-
chanical aids, reducing the cost of hauling so as to leave
a profit on the business. The surface of the land is
perfectly level and hard and very suitable. There are
Indians living in Wikky and also in Etoony who are
used to wood-cutting; and additional hands could be
brought up by the steamers. The creek is deep and
304 TIMEHRI.
navigable, and opposite its mouth is a beach where
Maccallum & Co., formerly loaded their ships.
Our Colonial Currency.
By Ff. B. Linne.
‘a! exist in the minds of the public on this subjeét ;
and, without wishing to display a polemic spirit,
it may be of interest to your readers elsewhere if I
attempt to give them a brief summary of the views
which one believes to be held in this colony on this ques-
tion. Money in British Guiana is of four species; first,
the money af account, which is composed of dollars and
cents, and the convenience of which for its specific pur-
pose no one here will deny ; it has the further advantage
of being identical in name and fractional parts with the
money of account in the United States, Mexico, St.
Helena, and most of the States of Southern America, while
it is similar to, or readily convertible with, the French,
Dutch, Italian and many other continental monies. The
American, Spanish and Mexican dollar is readily procur-
able in the London bullion market at its intrinsic value,
which fluctuates with the supply from this side of the
Atlantic and the demand for China, Japan, Central Africa
and other parts of the world; the cost of purchase and
transmission from London to Demerara exceeds 2 per
cent., and until a few years ago it was a legal tender
here at 4s. 2d. English to the dollar. My own firm
imported some two hundred thousand Mexican dol-
lars at that time; the coins were readily absorbed
into circulation, and in due course excessive imports
would have been checked by the rise in exchange, our
306 TIMEHRI.
financial pulse would have vibrated in consonance with
those of other countries, and we should have had a cur-
rency suitable to our accounts, of an intrinsic though
variable value, and therefore suitable for remittance to
any part of the world at the rate of quotations ruling
for silver in the London money market.
The colonial government of the day however were
alarmed, while the local banks were disgusted, partly
at a private firm profiting by an operation which the
banks themselves should have undertaken, but chiefly
because they saw their control over the island exchanges
imperilled and. greater facilities given to remittances
in specie. Instead of the colony welcoming the useful
coin and the banks meeting the emergency by raising
their rate for bills on England, the legislature first im-
posed a duty on the dollars and soon afterwards demon-
etised them. The Secretary of State, when he sanctioned
this latter step lost the chance of enforcing his views as
to the adoption of a gold currency and the limitation of
silver tender in the West Indies; and, instead of
making his sanction of the ordinance dependent on our
adopting his views of a proper currency, he deprived us
of the next best one, which would be a silver coinage
of marketable value, and left us with our present most
unsatisfactory money of legal currency, which consists
mainly of British silver, which is in England purely a
token currency, the tender of which is limited there to
forty shillings, but which if you sent it to your banker
in England and he was willing to take it, would cost you
not only the 2 per cent freight and other charges, but 4
per cent additional commission, in consideration of which
he would receive it from his customers; elsewhere than
OUR COLONIAL CURRENCY. 307
England the British silver would be practically almost
valueless. The whole expenses of the British mint are
paid from the profits of coining these tokens of silver
and copper, which bear a face value in relation to the
pound sterling considerably beyond their intrinsic value.
Mr. YOUNG, our Government Secretary, has suggested
that we might absorb that profit ourselves by issuing
our own silver tokens; but as the British Govern-
ment sensibly limits its own production of these tokens,
it would naturally object to our multiplying them,
whilst if we have a debased silver token currency solely
current in Demerara and coined specially for us, it would
isolate us more than ever from the world and place us
more entirely in the hands of the banks than before. If
we are to have a Demerara dollar currency, there was
little reason for demonetizing dollars of other countries
of equal intrinsic value; but in that event, we shall
suffer as individuals, whilst the general revenue benefits.
Thirdly, there is the money of colloquial parlance ; the
bit equal 4d., 3 bit equal 2d., gill equal 1d., stampee, 4d.
As the old Dutch guilders are rapidly becoming fewer,
and as we have recently heard that the English fourpenny
bit or “joey” (no relation to our extinct “joe” notes in
this colony) is being called in, we may expect that even
our country people will have to succomb to the inevita-
ble and alter their money nomenclature. With the
change we may perhaps see an agitation for some small
coin more suitable to our climate than the bronze penny
and halfpenny, which for offensiveness, though not in
amount, rivals the five dollar note of fashionable life
after a few weeks’ handling.
Lastly, we have the real bones and sinews of the
EE
308 TIMEHRI.
country, paper-money. Do we all not know the man
who to satisfy some creditor slaps his name to the
end of a promissory note equal in amount to half
his annual salary and then says ‘‘Thank God, that’s
paid for’? Do we not most of us see ‘‘goods”’ or ‘‘I O Us”
for considerable amounts in the cash boxes of the
merchants from their clerks or customers? Do we not
know what large sums have appeared at the credit of
certain funds in the colony books, before we mended
our way and wrote off the balances as bad debts? And
lastly do we net know the colour of a three months’
bill on London drawn by our two banks on their home
agents, or by some of our leading firms on a solvent ab-
sentee proprietor ; and when we have that in our hand,
what after all do we really care whether the small change
in our pockets for daily wants is composed of guilders,
shillings, or even of Mexican dollars ?
A Chapter in the Life-History of a Plant.
By G. S. Fenman, F. L. S., Government Botanist of British Guiana,
vi (JOST West Indians who have lived for any length
4) of time a country life, and possess an observant
taste for nature, are familiar by sight, though
possibly not by name, with the common large-leaved
shield-fern (Aspidium macrophyllum, Sw.), with its am-
ple leafy fronds, and their serried dot-lines of clustering
spore-cases, capped (as the groups are up to maturity)
by the little membranous circular shields. Here and
there in favourable situations, in districts of low altitude,
it is a common wood and wayside plant on, probably, all
the West Indian islands ; and here in British Guiana, it is
still more plentiful, but because of the different conditions
of the country, not so often seen by us in its native haunts
as by our island neighbours. Everywhere, whether on the
islands or the mainland, it is found under much the
same conditions of soil and shade,—the former fairly dry
and the latter rather light, such as open forest or low bush
might best afford. Those who have observed it in differ-
ent countries and are familiar with its appearance, know
that it is a plant that presents hardly any variation of
character: it seems to be the same in all its features
wherever found under the forementioned conditions of
growth.
Constant and true in its characters as the type plant
generally is, there is, however, a specialised form of it,
which I have taken as the subject of these remarks, that
PP
310 TIMEHRI.
I have recently become acquainted with, which does not
occupy the terra firma of its prototype, but lives an aqua-
tic life and has developed a very striking and peculiar
aspect, picturesque in itself and full of interest to the en-
quiring naturalist. On numerous creeks of the Pomeroon
River, and less abundantly on the main river itself, this
special form is found plentifully in the water, clustering
on stumps, logs of wood, and even the branches of trees
that hang down far enough to be washed by the stream.
It presents a most gay and fantastic appearance ; for,
like sailors aloft in a ship’s rigging, in the axil
of every leaflet, and sometimes on the ribs and
surface as well, are perched infantile plants, fully equip-
ped with leaves and roots of their own for a separate
and independent career, but temporarily attached to the
parent plant by the bud from which they have developed.
Through the overhanging branches, that in those still
solitudes a passing breath of wind occasionally stirs into
indolent motion, the sunlight gleams and plays on their
pale incipient foliage, distinguishing them with magic
contrast against the dark sombre green of the old plants
which support them. So far in their evolution they have
lived a dependent—one might say parasitic, but that they
are true, though abnormal, vegetative developments
from the parent—and eerial life. Their birth and
brief period of dependence, till they reach as it
were their majority and become in turn the pro-
genitors through many years of generation after gene-
ration of fertile successors, may be told in few words.
First, through the slightly ruptured epidermis, the embry-
onic bud appears, a mere gland, barely visible at first to
unaided sight. When a little more advanced, this is
THE LIFE HISTORY OF A PLANT. 311
seen to be composed of a minute fleshy nucleus, coated
by a few germinal scales. Then, by degrees, rudimen-
tary fronds arise and active rootlets are thrown out,
and the bud becomes a young plant complete in all
its parts. After a time, borne down by their increasing
size and weight, the parent fronds reach the water,
when, if the plantlets reach a suitable surface, they
root into it and begin their independent existence ; or,
if not, they are carried away, by the drag of the stream
or by the friction of floating material, to make a home on
any favourable spot they may chance to drift to. There
can be no reasonable doubt that this aquatic form was
originally derived from the plentiful, widely-spread terres-
trial form. Both are strictly identical in all but the
viviparous character I have described, and the different
habitats they occupy. When the buds are removed,
there remains no feature to distinguish a frond of one
form from a frond of the other. Now, this being
established, it will be interesting to inquire how this
aquatic form originated, and why has it, living in water,
acquired a bud-bearing faculty to such a conspicuous
degree, to which the type on land shows no disposition :
and what purpose, if any, in the economy of its life does
this power serve? How the conditions (the physical
causation of the resuit) came about which changed this
plant over a large area of the country from a terrestrial
into an aquatic subjeét can only be inferred with more
or less of probability. The nature of the conditions can
however be indicated with more of certainty: their in-
fluence on the plant can be shown, and the important
purpose that the adaptation to these (so successfully
accomplished) serves can be clearly seen.
312 TIMEHRI.
It is a matter of common observation how much the
majority of plants that possess a wide range are affected
in charaéter under the varying conditions and degrees
to which they are subje€t of drought or moisture,
exposure or shade, heat or cold, and difference of eleva-
tion (which in some particulars are the same) acting con-
tinuously upon them. The known instances of this
variation of form under the influence of physical surround-
ings are innumerable and rapidly increasing. Guided
by this experience we may look with some confidence to
the present environment of our subject for an explana-
tion of the adaptive change it has undergone. Now its
distinguishing character, viviparousness, is not an unusual
feature in the fern. family, and it appears to be induced
and much fostered by an abundant, ever-pervading,
atmospheric moisture. ‘This inference is justified by the
faét that most of the plants which exhibit it inhabit wet
mountain forests, the shady banks of streams, and other
similar very moist localities; and that among such, it is
in those which are the most thoroughly and constantly
pervaded by this dripping atmosphere that it shows its
fuliest development. To such influence our plant, in its
river-way habitat, sheltered by the surrounding and over-
reaching forest from sun and air, is most completely sub-
ject. As I have intimated, we can only speculate
(though with certainty as to the essential circumstances)
from the results which we see have been produced as
to the history of how the conditions came about
which produced these results. Not only was water
the great factor, but, judging from the truly aquatic
habits of the plant as we see it to-day, water
must have prevailed in the end, generally and abund-
THE LIFE HISTORY OF A PLANT. 313
antly. It is very probable that the region occupied
originally by the ancestral form was, under physical
change, invaded by water, becoming gradually, by very
slow degrees over a long period, quite flooded. This
result must have occupied a very considerable time, for
had the change been sudden, it is exceedingly doubtful
if the vegetation of this type could have survived it.
Then, as the water slowly and insensibly increased till it
covered the ground, all such plants as had so far survived
by the advantage derived from favourable Jocation, or con-
stitutional fitness, in the same degree adapted themselves
to the conditions. In course of time, under the prevail-
ing aqueous influence, some of these—possibly few in its
earliest stage—evinced a casual tendency to produce buds
on their fronds. At the same time that they were gradually
becoming specialised by this character, as the water
increased, the difficulty of maintaining the succession by
ordinary generation must have become more operative
year by year; for the majority of the spores falling
on the water would perish, and fewer and fewer, as time
went on, would find places favourable to their successful
germination. In those rare spots, too, they had to com-
pete, no doubt, with rival vegetation struggling also
under the same inimical conditions for security of life.
Here we see the value of this development, and the
a€tual necessity that it met, under the precarious condi-
tions of life which had come to exist at the period it
originated. The very survival of the plant under such
circumstances was threatened, and would eventually
-depend on this viviparous effort becoming established and
permanent, as the normal method of reproduction, influ-
enced by thesame cause, was steadily becoming ineffective.
314 TIMEHRI.
The young plants thus produced doubtless inherited the
tendency in an increasing degree, and succession after
succession perfected it. Then in the course of time
probably the drift of the water to its points of relief
formed channels, and, as these became deeper and
more effective, there was a gradual withdrawal of it from
the intervening land. The aquatic vegetation followed,
and was henceforth confined to the banks of streams, as we
see it at present. Now, like all racial tendencies that have
existed for long periods, the characteristic is so firmly
established that apparently if the physical conditions
which produced it, and under which to-day it flourishes
so well, were withdrawn, (though much modified under
the changed circumstances) many generations would
elapse before it again disappeared, leaving no trace on
the surviving plants of its having existed and played
such an important part in a chapter of their life-history.
&
G
BONO Se
On Lamaha Water and a Process for Purifying it.
By E. E. H. Francis.
ITS nature and composttion:—The water of the Lamaha
canal consists of the surface drainage from savannah
traéts, the upper soil of which contains much peaty
matter, or pegass, and decomposing vegetable debris :
hence the water, like other bush water throughout
the colony, is deeply coloured and resembles weak
tea in appearance. The colour is due to the pre-
sence of humous bodies dissolved in the water—
principally, a brown acid substance, soluble in alkalies
and precipitated by acids, resembling humic acid, and a
small quantity of apocrenic acid. The colouring matter
cannot be separated from the water by the mere appli-
cation of heat or by the passage of a galvanic current,
but it precipitates in brown flocks spontaneously, and
often completely, when the water is allowed to stand
for several months in glass vessels exposed to the light.
Nor can the colouring matter be easily destroyed by
oxidation ; thus acidified solution of permanganate, or
Condy’s fluid, aéts but imperfeétly upon it, and it stub-
bornly resists the a€tion of peroxide of hydrogen, even if
aided by heat. Filtration through animal charcoal par-
tially removes the colouring matter; and it can be com-
pletely separated by means of acetate of lead, hydrate
of iron or alumina. From a gallon of the water there
were obtained by precipitation with alumina 4°737 grains
of colouring matter, and the water then became perfe€tly
white. Apart from the vegetable matter present, the
water is fairly pure, as it contains only about 34 grains
QQ
316 TIMEHRI.
per gallon of mineral impurities, consisting of iron,
alumina, magnesia and a trace of lime and _ potassa,
together with small quantities of silica, sulphuric acid
and chlorine—in faét, just the substances that the clay
soil of the colony might be expeéted to yield to water
in contaét with it. The constant presence of iron in
Lamaha water to the extent of about $ of a grain per
gallon is worthy of note and may be of interest to those
persons who think that the colour of Lamaha, and other
bush water is due to the presence of “tannin.” Iron
in solution in the presence of tannin produces a black
colour—ink, in fact—but the water does not exhibit an
inky tint. Owing to its freedom from lime salts and
mineral matter generally, Lamaha water is almost as soft
as rain water—tested with an accurately made soap
solution its hardness was found to be exaétly 4 degrees:
The following represents a careful analysis of the solid
residue left after evaporating the Lamaha water, and
shows the nature and quantity of the impurities contained
in one gallon :*
Vegetable and organic matter... ... 4653 grains
Iron peroxide ... ins ake ee OL Olu
Alumina not tnd a SA OL28 Olea
Lime ... ie SH cee POLO SOME
Magnesia 160 yet 500 SBT COUGH)
Potassa es wee i 500), OPH) — py
Soda ... Bap Bee oa Sch OSOO ST ty
Silica ... = oe ne ONS OO Mua.
Sulphuric Acid... 350 ‘ine Soa OIG
Chlorine as oe ae sn O13 (na
Sass
Deduct Oxygen at ado CPi? 5,
7984
4 All the analytical determinations given in this paper are the result
of duplicate, frequently of triplicate, closely concordant experiments,
and may be thoroughly relied on.
On LAMAHA WATER. 317
On the best method for decolourizing and purifying
the water :—The dark unsightly appearance of Lamaha
water and the large quantity of vegetable matter
it contains unfit it for many domestic uses. Only
stern necessity compels persons to bathe in or drink iit,
and it is shunned by laundresses who have any care for
the colour of the linen they wash. A cheapandeasy process
for removing the colour without harm to the water would
therefore be of great service. The methods chiefly em-
ployed in purifying coloured or peaty waters are of two
kinds :—one is by simple filtration through porous and
absorbent substances such as animal or vegetable char-
coal, magnetic oxide of iron, spongy iron, silicated car-
bon, &c.; and the other by precipitating the colouring
matter chemically, usually by means of alumina added
to the water in the form of alum. The use of alum for
this purpose is well known here and in most other
parts of the world. Early in 1880 the writer com-
menced to make experiments on the purification of
Lamaha water and soon found that the method by
filtration was of no avail for operations dealing with
the water supply of the town. The decolourizing power
of charcoal or spongy iron filters is very limited for
Lamaha water; and the filters are speedily rendered
inaétive by the large quantity of vegetable matter that
accumulates in them. This will be evident when it is
stated that Georgetown requires 300,000 gallons of
Lamaha water a day ; and that quantity will contain about
200 pounds of vegetable matter that would have to be
removed before the water became colourless. Attention
was therefore dire¢ted to the best way of carrying out
the method of precipitation ; and it was ascertained that
. QQ 2
318 TIMEHRI.
1°614 grains of alumina was the smallest quantity that -
would effectually remove the colouring matter from one
gallon of the water. This quantity of alumina is con-
tained in 15 grains of alum; but as alum is rather an
expensive source of alumina, a cheap substitute was
sought for, and at last found in “
alumino-ferric cake,’
a neutral sulphate of alumina manufactured by Mr.
SPENCE of Manchester and, amongst other things, used
for ‘“‘decolourizing turbid, clayey or peaty water for
drinking and for manufacturing purposes.”’ The follow-
ing shows the percentage composition of alum and
alumino-ferric cake respectively :—
ALUM. ALUMINO-FERRIC CAKE.
Sulphate of alumina ... 36:11 Sulphate of alumina ... 46°74
(equal to 10°81 °/, alumina) (equal to 14:00 °/, alumina)
Sulphate of potassa Mee 18°36 Sulphate of iron fee 1°82
Water ae aa fol 45°53 Water ... Be in 51°44
10000 100°00
In most cases where alum or alumino-ferric cake is
employed to purify coloured water, the lime naturally
present in the water is sufficient to decompose the
aluminous compound, and set free the alumina, which
thereupon unites with and carries down the colouring
matter. But the quantity of lime in Lamaha water
being too small for this purpose, it is necessary to
use a certain proportion of lime, or other alkali, in
addition to the aluminous material. Potash or wood-
ashes, carbonate of soda, ammonia, or any other alkali
will answer; but the most economical is lime. For-
merly, the writer recommended the use of carbonate
of. soda, or its cheaper form called soda-ash; with
the obje€t of preventing the water becoming unduly
ON LAMAHA WATER, 319
hard from the presence of lime salts. But subsequent ex-
periments have proved that the slight increase of hard-
ness (1.7 degrees) is of small account compared with the
considerable saving in cost of material. Three grains of
slaked lime, equal to 2.27 grains of Bristol temper lime,
to the gallon of water have been found to give the best
results; and it makes no difference whether the lime is
added before or after the aluminous compound. After
adding the materials, the water is well agitated and the
sediment then allowed to settle, which it does com-
pletely in less than 12 hours, leaving +2 of the water per-
fectly clear above. To remove the colouring matter
from one million gallons of water, or sufficient for 3 days’
supply, there would be required 16544 pounds of alumi-
noferric cake and 3244 pounds of Bristol lime. ‘The cost
of the alumino-ferric cake, including freight to the colony,
would be about $15.00, and of the lime, about $1.50, or
together $16.50. This would represent a daily expense
of 85.£0 for the purifying materials.
On the composition and wholesomeness of the puri-
fied water :—The first trial of the above materials for
the purification of Lamaha water on a large scale was
made last August at the Georgetown Water Works in
the presence of Mr. L. M. Hill, Town Superintendent,
Addee vie) Williams, ECs: Town Councillor ~A
reservoir holding between 24,000 and 25,000 gallons was
filled with the water, and 40 pounds of alumino-ferric
cake and 19 pounds of slaked lime were successively
dissolved and mixed in this. Twelve hours after, the
sediment had completely settled, and the bottom of the
reservoir was clearly visible.’ The water thus purified
had no unpleasant taste, was clear, and quite white in
320 TIMEHRI.
small quantities, but exhibited a slight yellowish-green
colour when seen in large bulk. Its hardness was 5°7
degrees; and the solid residue from one gallon had the
following composition :—
Vegetable and organic matter... ... 0'558 grains.
Combined water ae es alm aS TD ie
Iron peroxide... Hen Bete ... 0'070 BA
Alumina nos an ihe ... 0'000 Ba
Lime ... ee Sa US ptacta “ath M 2B G2 ce
Magnesia Me a si OV 7 Omir,
Potassa me se we Out O .
Soda ... th ne nae fei LEQ TUG Ras
Silica... ae ae sie Se OnnS A 5D
Sulphuric acid... 48 Nat sog AGEN ’;
Chlorine uae ae fae BAG MORAY KON. so
11243 ”
Deduct Oxygen ... ane Sy kO;20O anna,
TOF Aa
* Equal to 3'108 grains of slaked lime.
Comparing this with the former analysis, it will be seen
that nearly all the vegetable matter, nearly all the
iron and all the alumina have been removed by
the treatment, whilst the lime and _ sulphuric
acid have been increased,—the former to the extent of
2.302 grains and the latter of 3.953 grains, together re-
presenting about 6 grains of sulphate of lime—a perfect-
ly harmless and constant constituent of potable waters.
This however cannot be said of the impurities that have
been removed. The presence of vegetable or organic
matter of any kind in water is objectionable. However
harmless it is generally, it may become highly noxious
under certain conditions, and moreover greatly tends
to foster infusorial and parasitic animal life.* That
* According to MALLET (Chem. News 46 p. 63) the injurious effects
produced by drinking polluted water do not depend on the chemical
ON LAMAHA WATER. 321
the brown bush-water of the colony exercises a spe-
cific effect on the functions of persons drinking it is
well known; but its action ceases after a time and
it is said that persons habituated to its use even prefer
the water to any other. Mere taste however affords
no criterion of the goodness of a water. Only a few
years ago nearly every London church possessed its pump
in connection with a well either in or near the church-
yard, and several were quite famous in their neighbour-
hood for the agreeable taste and appearance of the water.
Persons sent long distances to obtain a supply of the
cool and sparkling water from particular pumps, even
after it was proved that it was highly polluted and un-
doubtedly received the drainage from the adjacent graves.
It was also shown that the more polluted the water the
more it was praised and sought after. Subsequently,
when a violent epidemic of typhoid fever or cholera raged
in the Metropolis, and it became evident that several of
the pumps had become centres of the infection, they were
chained up, preparatory toremoval. Nevertheless, people
broke the chains to get at the water. Even in this city
there is but little doubt that if the various water vats
were overhauled, there would be disclosed the body, not
of the mythical missing terrier of the last Exhibition, but
of many a real one, together with other cadaveric abom-
inations now tempering the rawness of the rain water.
There is too much iron naturally present in the
Lamaha water, and it is well got rid of, if the water is to
be used for drinking. According to the best authorities,
good potable water should not contain more than 5 to
constitution of the organic matter, but on the presence and action of
living organisms. $ouwrn. Chem. Soc. 1883, p. 883.
322 TIMEHRI,
yo of a grain of iron per gallon; but Lamaha water con-
tain nearly } of a grain. It has been suggested that the
iron would act asa tonic, and therefore might be bene-
ficial; but tonics should be taken under medical advice
and not as articles of diet—their constant use would be
anything but beneficial.
The complete removal of alumina, not only of the
portion added in the form of alumino-ferric cake, but also,
that naturally present in the water, is a point of interest.
Any objection to the method of purification of Lamaha
water herein proposed could only be founded on the use of
an aluminous compound, as the presence of salts of alum-
ina, owing to their great astringency, is always objection-
able in food or drink. Now a glance at the analysis
given on page 316 will show that Lamaha water naturally
contains 0.230 grain of alumina, as well as 0.432 grain of
sulphuric acid : just the ingredients that are contained in
about 14 grains of alumino-ferric cake. But the whole of
the alumina, both added and natural, is got rid of by the
purification process—thrown down in combination with
the colouring matter by the agency of the lime, which
at the same time unites with the sulphuric acid and
remains in the water in the form of sulphate of lime or
gypsum.
A few grains more or less of lime salts or other innocu-
ous mineral compounds make very little difference in the
potability of a water, and if the total mineral constituents
do not much exceed 30 to 40 grains per gallon, they
afford no reason for rejecting the water for domestic
uses. The water supplied to London, and indeed most
other places, contain a much larger quantity of lime
and other salts than the purified Lamaha water. Thus,
ON LAMAHA WATER. 323
the Kent Water Company supplies London and parts of
Kent with more than 6 million gallons daily of deep well
water that contains 5.37 grains of sulphate of lime, 16.30
grains of carbonate of lime, and other salts to the extent
of about 30 grains per gallon. The only objection to the
Kent water is its great hardness. The water of the
river Thames, which is supplied to London and its
suburbs by eight companies at the rate of about 65
million gallons daily contains 2'4 grains of sulphate
of lime, 12°9 grains of carbonate of lime, and other
salts amounting to about 20 grains per gallon. The
New River Company supplies 26 million gallons of
water each containing 1°6 grains of sulphate and 127
grains of carbonate of lime, besides other salts. Many
similar examples could be given, but these are sufficient
to show that the purified Lamaha water with its 6 grains
of sulphate of lime and 3 grains of other salts per gallon
is much freer from mineral impurity than the average
potable waters used elsewhere.
On a simple plan for carrying out the purification
process :—It was originally proposed to purify the
water in large reservoirs in which the purifying ma-
terials could be mixed and from which the clear water
could be drawn off without filtration after the subsi-
dence of the impurities. This plan, however, did not
meet with approval, chiefly in consequence of the cost
of erecting the necessary reservoirs, and pumps. Ex-
periments were therefore commenced by the writer, with
the object of adapting the process to existing arrange-
ments at the Water Works; and it was found that the
object could be attained by dispensing with reservoirs
for subsidence and employing the sand filter-beds, al-
RR
324 TIMEHRI.
ready provided but seldom used at the works, to remove
the precipitated impurities. The method now proposed
is almost a self-acting one, and would require but the
most trifling expense to bring it into operation. It is as
follows :—The water from the canal is to be conducted
to the filter-beds by a channel which may have to be
about too feet long and 6 to 8 feet wide. In the first
part of this channel an open wooden box, liberally per-
forated with holes, is to be suspended by a contrivance
which will admit of its being raised or lowered to any
required height. A few slabs of alumino-ferric cake*
being placed in the box, the latter is to be iowered into
the channel to such an extent that the water passing
through at uniform velocity will dissolve exactly the pro-
per quantity of the cake. As the substance dissolves
slowly and regularly, this can be managed quite easily
after a few trials. Along the remainder of the channel a
few hogsheads of Bristollime are to be distributed so as to
form a bed of slacked lime over which the water flows.
If the current is not too rapid, no mechanical disturbance
of the lime will take place; Lut, if the length is properly
proportioned, the water will take up the exact quantity
of lime necessary to set free the alumina and colouring
matter. The water holding these impurities in suspen-
sion then proceeding to the filter-beds, will pass through
white and clear, leaving the impurities as a brown sedi-
* Alumino-ferric cake is exported in the form of convenient slabs
measuring 20” x 15” x 4”, each weighing 56 pounds, and is manu-
factured under a patent from the mineral called Bauxite by Mr. PETER
Spence of the Pendleton Alum Works, Manchester. The cost is 61/ per
ton free on board at Liverpool, and it is claimed to be the cheapest
source of soluble alumina extant.
ON LAMAHA WATER. 325
ment on the surface of the sand. When this process is
once set going, it should require but little attention. Fresh
alumino-ferric cake must of course be placed in the box
as the other dissolves ; and the bed of lime will occasionally
require renewal. As the impurities accumulate on the
filter-beds, the sand will become clogged; but as the
sediment is very light and remains almost wholly on the
surface, it can easily be removed. Simple flushing with
water, which is then allowed to run waste, is sufficient
for this purpose. As the water-works are already pro-
vided with two filter-beds, each of adequate dimensions
to filter the town supply, they can be used and cleaned
alternately. A piece of ordinary test paper, held in the
water passing from the purifying channel, serves as a
useful guide to the proper working of the process. If
the water is alkaline, too much lime is passing into so-
lution, and if very acid, too much alumino-ferric cake.
When the proper quantities are present the water
_ slightly reddens violet litmus paper after flowing over
it for a few minutes.
No opportunity has yet occurred for trying this plan
on a large scale, but a model apparatus for carrying
out the process is in frequent and successful operation at
the Government Laboratory. It consists of a flat
bottomed wooden gutter 2 feet 6 inches long and
3 inches wide through which Lamaha water from
a service pipe passes to a sand filter consisting of a
wooden box 12 inches square with a perforated false
bottom, on which rests a layer of coarse sand 3 inches
deep. A few fragments of alumino-ferric cake being
placed in the first part of the gutter, and a layer of lime
along the remainder, the water is turned on, and taking
RR 2
326 TIMEHRI.
up the purifying materials in its passage, it passes through
the sand filter in a perfectly clear and colourless condi-
tion at the rate of about 12 gallons an hour.
Essequibo, Berbice and Demerara under the Dutch.
PART I.
By the Editor.
PATE Organisation of the Colonies by the
tl Dutch, (A. D. 1667-1796.*) Guiana, from
Cayenne nearly to the Orinoco, remained
in the hands of the Dutch, with but brief and important
intervals, from the time of the peace of Breda till the
conversion of that part of it which lies north of the Co-
rentyn River into an English possession in the year 1796.
It will be best, anticipating history, to tell at once the
intervals to which allusion has just been made; their oc-
casions were when the French twice, in 1689 and again in
1712, captured Berbice, on each occasion almost imme-
diately taking ransom for it, and when in 1781 the
English under Lord RODNEY took Essequibo and Deme-
rara, which colonies were yielded to France in the fol-
lowing year, to be restored to the Dutch in 1783.+
* The “ Calendar of State Papers: Colonial Series,” from which in
the earlier part of this historical sketch I have been able to draw much
material, being as yet only published as far as the year 1668, I have
been obliged, in treating of the period here described, to depend on less
authentic and less minute authorities. And I must not omit here to
notice my indebtedness to Dr. H. G. Datton’s ‘History of British
Guiana’ (London, 1855), a work which, though it cannot, as it seems
to me, claim entire confidence, is yet useful in indicating the events
in the history of the colony which have to be verified from other sources.
+ While this is passing through the press I have received from Mr.
N. DarneELt Davis a manuscript, apparently original, entitled ‘ Memoire
328 TIMEHRI.
These transient, and therefore comparatively unim-
portant events, having been told, I may turn to the
general consideration of the period which has now
to be described, extending from 1667 to 1796. But
one other point may first be noted; and this is that the
land to be treated of in this chapter is smaller than that
dealt with before; for Surinam, unlike the rest of the
land, never again became English. It 1s somewhat
curious that the English and the Dutch should thus, as it
were, have exchanged the colonies which each founded.
The Guiana which we have now to consider extends,
therefore, from the Corentyn river, which forms the
boundary of Dutch Guiana or Surinam, nearly to the
Orinoco.* It included, in 1667, the two colonies of
Essequibo (founded 1580) and Berbice (founded 1626) ;
and to these, in 1765, was added the third colony, of
Demerara,
Throughout the period the Dutch were busily en-
gaged in giving shape and organization to these colo-
nies. It will be most convenient first to describe the gene-
ral management of the colonies during the period by
sur les Colonies de Demerary, Essequebo, Berbiche’. The date is 1752;
and the contents purport to be ‘an answer to the questions of the Mar-
quis de Castries as to the state of the colonies of Demerara, Essequibo
and Berbice, with special reference to the products, population and the
amount which they might yield to the royal treasury’. The writer’s
name does not appear. It is apparently a report drawn up for political
purposes just at the time of the brief occupation of Guiana by the
French in 1782-1783. I regret that it has come into my hands too late
to be of much use on this occasion ; but I trust to be able to print it,
either in full or in abstract, on a future occasion.
* It is hardly necessary to recall the fact that the exact boundary of
British Guiana toward the Orinoco has never been satisfactorily settled.
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 329
their rulers in the Netherlands ; and then, the process of
internal organization having been very similar in all the
colonies, it will suffice to take one as an example, and
to describe the life led, and the nature of the deeds done,
in that one. The example chosen for this purpose will
be the colony of Berbice.
First, as regards the general external management of
the colonies, the first time any authoritative body had
been constituted in the Netherlands to care for the scat-
tered settlements of Dutchmen on the “ Wild Coast”
had been about 1621, when the first Dutch West
India Company was established, with sole control over
all settlers and monopoly of all trade in Essequibo with
its dependencies, that being then the only Dutch co-
lony in Guiana. Thus had been inaugurated the system
according to which the Dutch colonies in Guiana were
to be governed, not directly by the government of the
Netherlands, but by a great trading company somewhat
similar to the famous East India Company. And when,
five years later, VAN PEERE had been allowed, as has
been told, to take possession of the banks of the Berbice,
rights as regards that river similar to those which the West
Indian Company enjoyed as regards the Essequibo, seem to
have been given to him, as an individual. Thus two systems
and two distinét authorities were created in Dutch Guiana.
But the rights of VAN PEERE seem very soon to have
lapsed in some unexplained way. On the other hand,
the rights of the original company, in Essequibo, had con-
tinued till 1657, when they had been voluntarily relinquish-
ed to a commission of eight persons, the original company
extinguishing itself in great disgust at the smallness of
the profits it had drawn from the colony. It seems not
330 TIMEHRI.
improbable that, at first, even the Dutch, though, unlike
their rival nations, they cultivated the soil, had shared the
general hope for much gold from Guiana; and that the
company had dissolved assoon as it learned the deceitfulness
of this hope. The substituted commissioners had soon
found, when in 1665 war broke out between Holland and
England, that they were unable to bear the cost of the
necessary military defence of their property; and they
were thus forced to yield both their rights and their cor-
responding duty of defence to the Government of Zea-
land, which of all the Netherland provinces was through-
out the most active in the affairs of Guiana. Thus the
proprietorship of the settlements rested with the State of
Zealand at the time when, by the Treaty of Breda, op-
portunity for peaceful organization under the Dutch was
almost for the first time allowed. The war over, Zealand
in 1674 allowed the formation of a ‘‘ New General West
’ with administrative rights over both
India Company ’
colonies alike, but with provision that the company
should confine the trade to Zealand. Essequibo long
remained under the rule of this great trading company
Berbice, on the other hand, was delivered over in 1678 to
a second VAN PEERE, the heir of the original founder ;
and it passed, in 1720, into the possession of a special
company of proprietors. Thus the management of the
two existing colonies was in the hands of special trading
companies, with powers almost absolute. These com-
panies, which were, of course, ultimately responsible to
the Government of Zealand, were represented in the
colonies by officers some of whom were sent out from
Holland, of whom others were appointed from among the
settlers.
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 331
In accordance with the plan already laid down it is
now necessary to turn from these general external con-
ditions to the internal condition of the special colony of
Berbice.
Just within the mouth of the Berbice River lies Crab Is-
land. Opposite to this, on the bank of the river stood,
in the year 1645, Fort St. Andries, built of small Dutch
bricks, and surrounded by a high wooden stockade, be-
yond which again was a moat. The size and importance
of this fort may be realised from the faé that its garrison
consisted of about twenty-five men and a proper comple-
ment of officers. Up the river, nearly fifty miles from this
fort was New Amsterdam, the quarters of the settlers.
Between, and especially around, these two points the
forest on the banks of the river was cleared here and
there, and plantations were gradually made. These
scattered plantations were conneéted by no roads ; and,
except in the very few cases in which an Indian path,
hardly discernible, connected two neighbouring settle-
ments, there was no communication except by water.
At this time most of the planters who came tothe colony
were men of some education and means. They built
themselves pleasant houses and made gardens; they lived
luxuriously, working not at all, but enjoying every bar-
baric luxury with which their crowds of slaves could supply
them in that rich but rough land. Their only exertion
was the leisurely daily ride, accompanied by a troop of
running slaves, round the plantation to mark and order
the necessary work; the rest of the day was spent in
eating, drinking, sleeping, and toying with the least un-
pleasing of their black woman slaves, for there were
hardly any European women in the colony. The
SS
ae TIMEHRI.
other white men in the colony, the civil and military
officials, the professional men, and the overseers of
estates were, some avowedly, all really, dependent on
the planters for their livelihood and still more for their
social enjoyment. Of the negro slaves, though they
formed very far the most numerous element in the
population, it is unnecessary now to speak; they were
the absolute property of the planters, who, according
to their respective natures, and each according to his
humour at the moment, treated these human chattels
either with the kindness which a good-natured man
shows to his dog or with the cruelty, varying more
or less in degree, which the ill-tempered man always,
and the hasty tempered man occasionally, treats his
animal. As some justification of this relation of master
man to slave man, it must be remembered that the latter
was a savage, really little better than an animal, but
recently torn from his African home, and in real need
of strong restraint ; and that the former lived in an age
in which the equality in dignity of humanity was not
generally recognised.
After all, very little progress was made during the
first hundred years in the settlement of Berbice. The
work had been commenced in 1625 ; and, as we have seen,
in 1657 the original proprietary company had thrown up
its rights over the colony, in disgust at the little pro-
gress which had then been made. But from an inven-
tory of the property of the company in the colony, drawn
up in 1720, it appears that even then, after more than sixty
years of the presumably more vigorous administration in-
augurated by the newcompany, there were only eight plan-
tations, six growing sugar and twococoa, less thanathous-
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 333
and slaves, though this estimate probably refers only tothe
able-bodied agricultural slaves, about a thousand head of
cattle of all kinds, and two or three small vessels
for trade. There were, however, probably some inde-
pendent planters, with some little property, besides those
forming the company. Moreover in the year of the
inventory the interest of the company was sold to a new
body of proprietors, who at once made determined
efforts to develope it. Eight new sugar-plantations were
speedily taken into cultivation; large numbers of new
slaves were imported ; and coffee began to be so far
successfully cultivated that the growers, in effusive gra-
titude, sent a riding-horse to the Governor of the neigh-
bouring colony of Surinam, he having sent them the first
seed.
As this was an important period in the history of the
colony it is fortunate that there exists a letter written in
1735 by a settler newly arrived in Berbice to his friends
in Holland, in which the writer gives an instructive
account of the place as he sawit. *
The writer reached the mouth of the Berbice River on
the 3oth of April 1735. His description of the size of
Crab Island, which blocks the mouth of the river, is only
explicable on the supposition—yjustified by other evidence
—that the island as it exists to-day is but a very small
remnant of that which it was in those days. It was
* This letter, ‘“edited by G. T. GALBANO-ELEPHANTIUS, Historical
Writer, Rotterdam,” purports to have been printed in a very odd
place—on Crab Island in the mouth of the Berbice River—in 1736
for VAN DE Kock & Son. This letter has recently been translated
and reprinted in Demerara (W. B. Jamigson, Georgetown, 1877) for
my friend N. DARNELL Davis, to whom I am indebted for a copy.
SS 2
334 TIMEHRI.
intendea shortly to build a fort on the island, which
would securely defend the river and the colony within it.
The guard-house was first passed, where the ship, after
reporting itself, lay to until the Governor sent permission
for it to enter the river. Within the river the passengers
were landed, and were immediately obliged to show their
letters to the Governor and other members of the Court
of Policy, which Court was the newly instituted governing
body of the colony. The members read to the passengers
a statement of the behaviour they were to observe and
administered an oath of fidelity to the Court. After
these ceremonies the writer was taken into the wooden
gallery of the fort and there entertained unti] dinner was
ready with a pipe and bowl of paiwari—an Indian drink
which it would be most astounding to find in the Gov-
ernor’s house at the present day. At dinner there were
present the Governor and his wife, the members of the
Court and some other colonists. There was no accomo-
dation for visitors in the fort or anywhere in the neigh-
bourhood ; so that the promise of free quarters for three
or four weeks which had been made by the colonial offi-
cials to the emigrant when about to leave Holland
could not be kept. However, a planter entertained
the writer very kindly for the first week after his arrival,
until he found quarters for himself sufficiently near the
land which was allotted to him to enable him to super-
intend his slaves in their task of clearing the forest.
He writes hopefully of his land, and of the zeal
and willingness of those under him. He lived in a
temporary hut built of palm-leaves. The river, which is
there tidal, furnished the only water to be had; the fish
seemed to him slimy and fullofbones, difficult to catch, and
rs
c
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 335
were generally got by barter from the Indians ; game was not
abundant nor as good as that in Europe, and was like
the fish, hard to catch. The principal breadstuff was cas-
sava, which seemed at first very unpalatable, but became
more tasty after a time; fruit was to be avoided, as
apt to give colic. The life of the new comer was, on
the whole hard. But the writer announces his intention
of procuring more slaves from the next slave-ship, and
devoting his attention to being master only, instead of
master and servant both, as he was at the time. In fact,
he was going to take to the easy life of the older plant-
ers. Heasks his correspondent to send him a surgeon,
a carpenter, and a housekeeper.
He did not intend to marry in the colony for the only
white women then were the soldiers’ wives, and they
were ‘
as ugly as sin.’’ Girls of fourteen years old, he
most ungallantly wrote, “are like thirty, thin, yellow and
without teeth, so that there is no fight for them, and I
curse myself three times at sight of them.”
The colony was rapidly becoming more populous, and
there were already sixty planters there. (This does not
seem a large number considering that the colony had
been in existence more than a century). There was
great need of doctors, surgeons and apothecaries—
not quacks, the writer significantly adds, and parsons
and schoolmasters were most urgently needed, ‘for
really we shall become uncivilized at last.’ No one,
however, could come to settle without a recommendation
from the directors at home and the permission of the
Governor and Court of Policy in the colony. And, again
. asregards the new arrivals in the colony, the writer com-
plains that three Frenchmen arrived to one Dutchman.
336 TIMEHRI.
There was great need of communication through the
colony; the only highway was along the river, and it
was somewhat difficult to get boat-hands. It had been
suggested that a towing path should be formed along the
whole inhabited part of the river, and that boats dragged
by horses should be provided for the convenience of the
public; but this scheme was only a suggestion and no
steps had been taken to carry it into execution.
To the information gathered from this letter may
be added from other sources, that the principal
objects of cultivation at this time were cocoa, cotton,
tobacco, coffee and sugar, and that the cultivation of this
last mentioned product was greatly increased about this
time owing to the discovery that the coast-lands, which
had not before been much used, were especially apt for
this sort of crop.
Moreover, by this time the internal political organization
of the colony had taken more or less definite shape, in a
form which was the germ of its present constitution.
The exaét nature of the body called the ‘ Proprietors of
Berbice’ which was formed in 1720, is not quite obvious ;
but it was in all probability a body of the chief pro-
prietors, who had bought the proprietary rights of VAN
PEERE orhis heirs. For twelve years after the formation
of this body, it held the colony as its property ; and it was
responsible only to the Government of the Netherlands.
But in 1732, three years that is before the letter from which
we have drawn an account of the colony was written, the
States-General of the Netherlands, at the instigation of
the proprietary company, decreed that Berbice was to have
a constitution. Its affairs were to beadministered bya ~
governor, appointed from home by the company but with
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 337
the sanction of the Netherland Government ; andthe gover-
nor was to be assisted by a Council, or Court of Policy, of
six members. ‘These members were to be chosen by the
governor from twelve of the principal settlers nominated
by the inhabitants with a certain property qualification.
A Criminal Court of six members was to be established
by the Court of Policy ; and a Civil Court was to be
formed, consisting of the governor, as president, and not
less than six members, of whom some were to be named
by the Court of Policy, some by the inhabitants generally.
The lands were to be allotted on suitanle terms, and
necessary taxes were to be raised. A parson anda school-
master were to be provided, ard the former, by an odd
arrangement never carried into effect, was to enjoy, as part
of his remuneration, a free table at the governor’s house,
a keg of brandy, and a half a pipe of wine.
The constitution thus ordered was got into some
sort of working order in the following year. The first
governor was one BERNHARD WATERHAM, doubtless
the same who, two years after his appointment, entertained
the writer of the letter from Berbice immediately on his
arrival with a pipe and bowl of paiwari in the wooden
gallery of the fort opposite Crab Island. The first par-
son reached the colony in 1735, the very year in which
the letter was written.
This new ordering of the colony imparted new life to
it. Settlers flocked to it in such numbers that, though
according to their new constitutional powers the com-
pany began by allotting the land free of charge, it was
very soon found necessary to charge a certain sum per
acre; and, as planters became more numerous, slaves
were imported in largely increased numbers. For thirty
338 TIMEHRI.
years the colony on the whole flourished exceedingly ;
then the long smouldering element of danger which was
created by the vast numerical disproportion between the
numbers of the masters and of the slaves broke out in
fierce flame.
The sight, common at the present day, of a huge and
splendid English cart-horse led by a ten-year old boy,
often small and puny for his age—and obeying the slight-
est whim of its leader, cannot but give a thoughtful man
subject for reflection. But infinitely greater must be the
wonder of the same man if he ever reflects that, in past
time, vast bodies of men, men who over and above instinét
as of the horse possessed that mighty power called reason
have for long periods allowed themselves, body and spirit
to be altogether and entirely subject to very small bodies
of other men, individually no whit physically stronger
than themselves, and often not sostrong. This marvel-
lous phenomenon, of the strong mastered by the weak,
prevailed in the colony of Berbice at the time of which we
are treating in a most dangerous degree. The numerical
disproportion between masters and slaves in Berbice must
have been great throughout this period ; but in 1762, a ter-
rible epidemic having proved fatal to large numbers of the
white men while it had had little effe€t on the
black population, this disproportion had become so
enormous that there were at the time, accord-
ing to a very competent authority,* three thousand
slaves and only one hundred white men. That much
physical cruelty, and—though the sufferers probably
cared, as they realized, little enough about that—moral
* Hartsinck Beschryving van Guyana. A.D. 1770.
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 339
cruelty too, had been and was long afterward practised
against the slaves may here be taken for granted ; inthe next
chapter will be produced a most trustworthy wit-
ness both of the cruelty and of the kindness practised
by these Dutchmen against their slaves. For the present
the fact of the cruelty may be assumed. Moreover,
most of the slaves of those days had been actually torn
from their African homes, where their lives had been
probably hard enough, but where at least they had not
endured that worst form of hardship to the savage,
constant hard manual labour; and in their new homes
these people were made to do enormously hard and
often incessant work in clearing the forest and culti-
vating the fields. They, especially those of them who
were either the most savage by nature or had been arti-
ficially brutalized by unusually hard treatment, were
ready to take any means of escape from their new
state. And means were in many cases easily found;
for often dense forest, through which no white men could
follow them, came up to the edge of the plantations on
which they worked and offered them an easily attained
refuge. Many had taken advantage of this; and thus
there were large communities of bush-negroes, or, in other
words, escaped slaves, in the forests round the widely
scattered homes of the settlers. These bush-negroes were
not only in themselves very dangerous to the white
settlers but they also constantly stirred and excited the
minds of other Africans newly brought to the colony
against their masters. Before 1763 several more or less
serious riots had from time to time broken out amongst
the slaves; but these had been, though often with some
difficulty, repressed. The great weapon of defence in
TT
340 TIMEHRI.
the hands of the planters to be used against riotous
slaves had been the soldiers, stationed in the colony
chiefly for that purpose. But after a time the soldiers
had objected to the constant use to which they were
put as chastisers of black fellows; and more than
once, they had, in consequence, rebelled. But even
had they been willing agents, the numbers of the gar-
rison had, by fever and other evils, been reduced to
about a score. All things, therefore, were favourable
for a revolt of the slaves; and they took advantage
of the opportunity.
The revolt began in the early part of 1763 at Plan-
tation Magdalenburg on the Canje Creek, which runs
into the Berbice river near the mouth of the latter.
Having murdered their manager, the slaves from this
plantation passed from place to place, burning, ran-
sacking, murdering; and in almost every place they
were joined by their countrymen. The governor,
WOLFORT SIMON VAN HOGANHEIM, behaved splen-
didly; but he was almost powerless, owing to the fact
that the few soldiers he had at his command and
those of the colonists who had managed to escape
to him were too terrified and too distracted to obey
any orders. Meanwhile, a large number of planters
far up the river, who were surrounded before the
danger was sufficiently evident to induce flight, had,
as a last resource, gathered together and fortified
themselves in a dwelling house. By this time the
slaves had acquired some sort of organization and had
chosen a leader. Announcing that they meant to
expel every white man from the colony, they advanced
against the enclosed planters and induced them to
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 341
capitulate, by promising to allow them to pass safely
down in boats. After this capitulation, no sooner had
the fugitives reached their boats than the negroes fired
upon them, killing some outright and taking others
prisoners. The latter were murdered in horrible ways,
but such as are natural to slaves excited to revenge by
oppression. Very few of the fugitives escaped; and
these made their way against terrible difficulties down
the river. Success almost everywhere crowned the
efforts of the slaves, and confusion everywhere distracted
the white man. Before long nearly the whole of the
banks of the river were in the hands of the insurgents ;
and the white men, or such of them as had not fled in
dismay from the colony, were cooped up in the fort or in
the ships in the river. At the end of March a hun-
dred soldiers, sent from Surinam, reached the colo-
ny; and from this time till the end of the year small
bodies of troops arrived from various quarters. The
energetic governor made full use of all that he could
gather under his command. Moreover he summoned to
his aid the Indians, who, hating black men, were then, as
always, ready to assist in hunting them down, and
were thus most useful allies; for they, even far more
than the negroes, were at home in the forest to which
the insurgents retreated as to a cover from which they
could make raids wherever they saw an opportunity.
Two curious proclamations were issued by the
governor to encourage his party. One offered a re-
ward for every rebel captured alive and for every
right hand of one slain. The other, which promised
pensions to all such as should be injured on the side
of the settlers, did this according to a detailed scale
TT 2
342 TIMEHRI.
which is sufficiently curious to merit insertion :—
For the loss of two eyes, was promised a pension of 1,500 guilders.*
‘ one eye oy a 5 OMe
5 both arms Be a HOO)
ee right arm 5 ” A529) 55
% left arm : » 359 +
x! both hands 7 5 1;200) iss
53 right hand on 3 SOOmms
55 left hand 99 ” 300 ”
3 both legs A ae 95 JOO»,
ns one leg 50 ” 359 5,
is both feet: 9 » 450 5,
“ one foot 6 " 200) 955
In May, New Amsterdam and its fortifications having
been destroyed, the governor had made his head-quarters
at Plantation Dageraad. This post was now attacked by the
insurgent negroes, who are said to have numbered at that
time between two and three thousand ; but the attack was
repulsed by the Dutch. Fora long time fortune seemed to fa-
vour each party alternately. At onetime, certaininformation
was received that there was internal strife in the negro
camp ; at another time came news that a considerable
body of Dutch soldiers had joined the insurgents; and,
again a little later, that of these deserters, they having quar-
relled with their new allies, many had been shot by the
negroes while the rest were hardly in a position to do much
harm to the colonists. Sickness spread among the
Dutch; and, simultaneously, provisions grew scarce.
But on the other hand, more and more soldiers, in small de-
tachments, reached the colony. Thus things wenton with ev-
er-varying success till the end of the year. Just before the end
of December it must have been somewhat embarrassing to
the much-tried governor to learn, as he did, that a slave-
* The guildere=1/8d.
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 343
ship having on board 300 new Africans had just arrived in
the river. However, almost the next news he heard, in
the beginning of the year, was that an ample body of
troops, sent from Holland to save the colony, had arrived.
From this time, of course, success came abundantly to
the Dutch party. For nearly six months however, the
work of capturing the fugitives, shooting some, burning
others alive, hanging, torturing, breaking on the wheel,
and otherwise punishing others, was continued. Among
the other fugitives, not a few Dutch deserters were cap-
tured, and of these the leaders were tortured and exe-
cuted as the slaves had been. This pacificatory work
being at last ended, a proclamation offering pardon to
the few slaves who were still fugitives was issued in
October ; and then the colonists began the task of repairing
the damage done, and strengthening themselves against
any repetition of the recent calamity. That these efforts
were successful is sufficiently shown by the faét that the
onward history of Berbice in the thirty years during
which it still remained Dutch was uneventful, peaceful
and exceedingly prosperous ; and perhaps, remembering
its previous history, the most significant faét is that the
energies of the colony during this last period of Dutch
rule were chiefly displayed in the importation of largely
increased numbers of slaves.
Thus the history of Berbice during this period may be
summed up as consisting in the extension of cultivation
and the increase in the number of settlers, these two
tendencies growing at first slowly but afterwards much
more rapidly ; in the formation of a constitutional govern-
ment ; and in the perfecting of the labour system, by slaves.
A similar course of events, varied only by differences in lo-
344 TIMEHRI.
cal conditions, made the history of the other two colonies.
Even Demerara, though founded so much later, yet by
the rapidity of its development not only soon raised itself
to the level of the two sister colonies, but even surpassed
them. About the time that Berbice was engaged in its
great servile war, Demerara received its first governor
(1765), and thus raised the number of colonies in the
part of Guiana with which we are concerned from two
to three.
Yet this three-fold state did not last long. The
daughter soon swallowed the mother, and Essequibo
was merged in Demerara. Near the mouths of the two
rivers, the west bank of the Demerara and the east bank
of the Essequibo are in places not many miles apart.
The lands on the coast were by that time greatly in
demand, and those immediately abutting on each of the
two rivers and on the sea between the mouths of these
were soon occupied; for that an estate should have a
water frontage, rendering the shipment of its produce
possible in that roadless land, was obviously of very great ad-
vantage. The land between, but not immediately bordered
by, the two rivers was therefore brought into cultivation,
by digging first one and then a second canal from the
Demerara toward the Essequibo. The line of these canals
was arranged between the governments of the two rivers ;
and then the lands along that line were allotted in due se-
quence to new settlers, on condition that each should dig that
part of the canal which was to pass through his iand,
Thus in time were formed two great parallel water-ways,
along the banks of each of which were houses and plan-
tations which, if report is to be believed, were, the one
the most luxurious, the other the most flourishing, in
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 345
Guiana. In passing, it may here be mentioned that when
Dutch rule gave place to English these canal lands were
gradually almost abandoned; but under the Dutch they
flourished. The bond of union between Essequibo and Deme-
rara formed by the new means of intercommunication was
soon followed by a political union. The occasion of the
change was when these colonies, which had been taken
and withheld from the Dutch for two years, were restored
to) them by) the Dreaty of Paris im 1783. Then, in
restoring order to the two colonies it was arranged that
in future there should be but one Court of Policy for the
two colonies—though these were regarded as in some
sort distinét—and that this should meet at Stabroek in
Demerara. This arrangement not working well, and the
importance of Essequibo sinking lower and lower, the
two colonies were finally united under the title of the
‘United Colonies of Demerary and Essequebo’ in 1789;
thus, as sometimes happens in commercial firms, the
younger but richer partner took precedence of the
senior. Once more therefore, there were only two
colonies in this part of Guiana. |
The tide of prosperity in the colonies was now at
the highest point which it ever reached under the Dutch.
Tke colonists of that nationality, amassing money rapidly,
built themselves substantial houses and adorned them
with everything pleasing totheir taste ; they made flower-
gardens and fruit-gardens such as are not dreamed of in
commercial Guiana of the present day ; and in the places
which they had thus created they lived easy, almost patri-
archal lives, supported by the exertions of their slaves. Fear
of still possible revolt on the part of the slaves was no
longer so serious a thorn in their flesh; for by that time
346 TIMEHRI.
they had learned for the most part to treat these depen-
dents witha curiousbut substantial kindness which had the
effeét of attaching the older slaves in a most remarkable
manner to the persons of their masters. In the next
chapter I shall have opportunity of describing one or
two Dutch Guiana houses of this period; and the only
points that need be emphasized at present are, that these
places were much more substantial, better equipped and,
in short, more homelike, than anything now existing in
Guiana, and that the reason of this is that the Dutch
colonist settled in Guiana with the purpose of making
that place his home for life and the home of his chil-
dren, whilst the English colonists, who arrived in large
numbers at this time, settled merely temporarily and
always hoped to return to the old country when they had
made some sort of fortune.
These new English settlers exercised a very impor-
tant influence on the history of the colony. About the
year 1780 they arrived in large numbers, so large indeed
that they are said to have formed two-thirds of the white
population of the town of Stabroek. They brought with
them considerable capital and a degree of commercial
energy which was very far beyond that of the older
Dutch inhabitants. . The consequence was that before
long much of the trade of Guiana, though still nomi1-
nally confined to Holland, was secretly, by a species of
smuggling connived at by the authorities, directed to
England. Buta yet more important consequence was
that a strong feeling grew up in the colony in favour of
a substitution of English for Dutch allegiance. To this
feeling was largely due the readiness with which the
colonies yielded themselves in 1781 to English besieg-
THE THREE COUNTIES UNDER THE DUTCH. 347
ers; and, though the colony at that time remained but
a few months in the hand of England and was, after a
brief time of French rule, eventually restored once more
to Holland, the attraction to England grew yet stronger.
When, therefore, war was once more declared in 1796
between Holland and England, an invitation was, it is
said on good authority, sent secretly from Demerara to
the English at Barbados. Whether this invitation was
sent or not, an English fleet under Major General WHYTE
appeared at the mouth of the Demerara river on
the 2oth April in the same year. The united colony of
Demerara and Essequibo yielded itself at once and with
the best possible grace ; and this example was soon after
followed by Berbice.
With this fleet a certain Doctor GEORGE PINKARD,
Inspector General of Hospitals to His Majesty’s forces,
reached Guiana. This man having lived in Guiana dur-
ing the greater part of that English occupation, and
having used his unusual advantages to understand the
colony thoroughly, published a series of letters on the
subject, from which | propose, in the next chapter, to
draw a somewhat detailed picture of social life in Guiana
at that time.
UU
Occasional Notes.
An Accawot Peatman.—Mr. MCCLINTOCK has sent
me the following interesting note :—
““T had an Accawoi huntsman who was a sorcerer (peaiman) and
considered that he had certain birds and animals so completely under
his control that no inducement would have tempted him to kill any of
them; among them were powis (Cvax alector) maroodies (Penelope
marail) and the arua tiger (sp ?). The latter he always told he could
put his hand upon any time he went out. This Accawoi died about 15
years ago. I was well acquainted with the whole family, nine in num-
ber ; they lived on the upper Barama. The father of my huntsman,
having gone out with his dogs to hunt for tortoises, fell in with an ant-
eater (Myrmecophaga jubata). As he had no arms with him, except a
knife, and being weak and aged, the ant-eater threw him down, fixed
its claws in his shoulders, and would no doubt have killed him but that
the man got his knife, with some difficulty as it was under him, and
commenced sawing at the animal’s throat. When the blood ceased to
flow, the Indian removed the claws from his shoulders and returned to
his settlement. I saw the wounds in the man’s shoulders and directed
him as to the treatment, but he preferred his own remedy, decoction of
mora bark, which possesses wonderful healing property.”
we ee
Local Medicinal Barks.—The concluding remark in
the preceding note recalls a subject often brought for-
ward in this colony but never pressed to any satisfactory
conclusion, hardly ever, indeed, seriously examined
with a view to reaching such a conclusion. I refer, of
course, to the supposed occurrence among the barks
and simples so freely used medicinally by the Indians
of the colony of some at least which might be of great
curative service if introduced into the pharmacopceia
of the world and might, consequently, be of great com-
OCCASIONAL NOTES. 349
mercial value to the colony, as natural products, easily
procured in abundance and of value, for export. At
every local exhibition tables are heaped with bundles of
barks, named with very few exceptions only by their
Indian names, and described most unsatisfactorily as to
their medicinal use by the Indians. And at the close of
these exhibitions these, in this state most uninteresting,
objects, are thrown aside to perish. Only once, so far
as Iam aware, has any attempt been made to cause
scientific research to be made among these barks to find
any that may be of value among them. The barks con-
tributed by this colony to the London International
Exhibition of 1862 were, at the instigation of Miss, since
Baroness, BURDETT-COUTTS, practically tested to some
extent by CHARLES HUNTER, then Surgeon to the Royal
Pimlico Dispensary. ‘The results, or some of the results
of his researches Mr. HUNTER published in the form
of a pamphlet,* which, though apparently little known,
seems to be the only record of any practical testing
of the local medicinal barks. It seems, therefore, de-
sirable to extract from it and re-print here the most im-
portant of its results, in the hope that these, being known,
may lead to a further and more full examination of the
subject.
Mr. HUNTER explains that his objeét was :—
“ To ascertain whether among the medicines sent (1) any of them pos-
sess curative properties not possessed by those of the British Pharmaco-
poeia ; (2) whether the medicines exhibited from abroad—for given com-
plaints—are of greater value than those we already possess; and (3), if
* “ A Report upon some of the Colonial Medicinal Contributions to
the International Exhibition, A.D. 1862” by CHARLES HunTER. (John
Churchill & Sons, London, 1863.)
UU 2
350 TIMEHRI.
not of greater but equivalent value, whether they can be obtained more
easily and cheaply than those now in use.” ‘“‘ Itis hardly to be expected,”
the writer adds, “ that quinine and cod-liver oil will be superseded by
other remedies equally effectual, yet cheaper . . .. . but there are many
other medicines extensively used here which may possibly be replaced
by cheaper and equally effectual substitutes from abroad.
Of the English colonies none exhibited a better collection than those
shown by the Commissioners of British Guiana ; among them, consti-
tuting the bulk of the collection, was a series of 140 barks collected by
Mr. W. C. H. F. McClintock, said to be in use among the Accawoi,
Arawack, and other Indian tribes. Mr. McClintock has appended in
most cases the use for which these various barks are given. From
among them I have selected those which were described as ‘very’ or
‘most efficacious’ in such and such complaints, and have tried their
therapeutical properties in appropriate cases.”
After explaining that of the 140 barks above-mentioned
many had lost their labels and were therefore useless
for experiment, that others, being prescribed for com-
plaints peculiar to South America, therefore admitted
of no experimental test in England, Mr. HUNTER con-
tinues :—
‘‘T have chosen first to examine some of those barks, of which great
numbers abound in Demerara, said to be valuable from their febrifuge
properties. . . . The form of administration that I have adopted
has been, in every case, that of decoction of the bark, taken internally,
either warm or cold. In most cases it is the inner bark of the tree that
is prescribed, and that I have employed. . . . It is by decoction
also that these remedies are given among the Indians of Guiana. No
account being sent of the strength of the decoctions for internal use, |
have adopted the same strength as used at the dispensary for the much
used barks cinchona, cascarilla et ce¢t., thus piacing them upon equal
grounds as to equal quantities, the same doses being taken as of the
decoction of ordinary barks, viz., about one ounce and a half, three
times a day. In the general way, three ounces of the solid bark are
broken up and boiled in eighty ounces of water for half or three quarters
of an hour.”
It should also be remarked that Mr, HUNTER made
OCCASIONAL NOTES. 351
use of his official position as surgeon to the dispensary
to administer his experimental doses to the patients
under his charge; and he took care to do this without
aéting upon their zzagination, and so unfairly increasing
the power of the drug in minor cases, by telling them
that the medicine was new.
The barks from British Guiana on which report is
made in this pamphlet are seventeen in number and as
follows :—
Ex-eEK. Used as a febrifuge by the Accawoi. . . . The decoc-
tion is of a clear red colour, without odour, and it has a warm, barky
taste, neither particularly bitter nor astringent. . . . . I cannot
regard the £k-ek as a medicine of great tonic property, but rather one
that, taken plentifully, in a weak feverish state, acts, by its slightly
bitter and astringent powers, in restoring tone to the alimentary and
digestive canal. Moreover, it being taken hot in the country where it
abounds, it can be made fresh each time, which would render it also
diaphoretic.
Bourari and PowgesEma. (Mr. Hunter discovered for himself the
great similarity, if not identity of these two samples of bark under
different names. As a matter of fact, powesema is the Accawoi name,
bouiari is the Arawak ; and most colonists will rightly recognise in this
bark that of the douiari bush-rope (Mikania amara) of which excellent
bitters are frequently made.) . . . . The decoction . .. . is
of a dark brown colour, both the taste and odour being very aromatic
In cases of sore-throat and fever . . . . the therapeu-
tical action I cannot consider great. Out of five cases this medicine was
beneficial in two, in two it did no good, and it was of doubtful effect in
one . . . . The Jouiari is not a medecine of peculiarly tonic pro-
perty, but seems, in three or four out of the fourteen cases in which it
was given (purely as a tonic) to have been very beneficial in removing
a flatulent state of bowels and in giving tone to the stomach. This ap-
pears to be due to its aromatic qualities; and I have not a doubt that,
in certain cases of dyspepsia it is a very valuable medicine, for those
patients that it has suited (when given by itself) have described them-
selves as better on this medicine than on any other they have ever
taken, It is worth observing that bouiavi gives no black or green
352 TIMEHRI.
precipitates with a per- or pro-salt of iron, with which it can, there-
fore, be prescribed.
KoraBALLI.—The decoction was of a clear, cherry-red colour, warm
and slightly aromatic to the taste, and but slightly bitter or astringent.
This is said to be beneficial in fever cases. I have tried it in
fifteen cases; . . . . ten improved whilst taking it: one, a child,
very feverish, got well sooner than it had ever done when feverish and
ill before. I cannot explain its modus operandi, any further than of the
effects of a decoction of cinchona; of the two, however, koradalli seems
the lighter and more agreeable, and, being a cooler febrifuge, is admis-
sible where cinchona may not be.
SIPIRI AND BIBERINE. (By szfivi Mr. HUNTER seems to mean a
decoction of the bark of the greenheart tree (Nectandra Rodiai), by
diberine the well known substance extracted from the seeds of the same
tree.) The decoction of sifivi is of a light yellow colour, with a naus-
eating, bitter taste, and a somewhat sickly odour .. . . The
effects seemed to be to remove feverishness and strengthen both the
stomach and system generally. The proportion of tonic principle in a
given amount of this bark is much less than in the case of cinchona.
. . . Biberine. . . . I have given in three or four cases, two
being slight fever, with enlargement of the tonsils, in children ; benefit
followed in each case. . . . . This decoction was much more bit-
ter than the ordinary decoction of greenheart-bark.
KIARA-PEPO. . . . seemed rather weak and ineffectual (in two
or three cases of fever in which Mr. HunrTeErR administered it) and I
have omitted further trial of it for the present.
Hiawa, (Hiawa is Icica heptaphylla.) This is one of the barks
vaguely . . . . described on the label as ‘‘ in bowel complaints”
A decoction of an ounce to half a pint of water gives a rich
red-coloured liquid, with a warm odour, and bitter, aromatic taste.
Hiawa, from what I have observed, seems to be nothing
more or less than an astringent, acting somewhat like catechu upon
the bowels . . . . Whether it has tonic properties or not, I cannot
say ; but if so, they must be very feeble considering the strength of the
decoction.
Brack Mora. (Black mora is, I think, merely the older state of the
well-known Mora excelsa, Ed). This medicine is said in the catalogue
to be administered as ‘a purgative in belly-ache.’ When decocted (it
gives) a rich, pink-coloured fluid, with a disagreeable, nauseating
OCCASIONAL NOTES. 353
odour and after-taste. It does not fulfil its announced object, in the
doses I ordered ; it even seems to have had an opposite effect.
IBARAWACASHIE «© . . . is used . . . . like “black mora’
as a purgative in belly-ache; and, as far as I have examined, it
does so more effectually. The decoction is of a clear-red colour, with
a warm odour, and an astringent, bitter and sickening taste.
KuRUBALLI is simply described as an ‘‘emetic” . . . . On
boiling half an ounce in ten ounces of water till three ounces are
evaporated, the solution is of a dark clear-red colour, witha warm,
slightly astringent taste. Being described as an emetic, I ordered the
decoction of this bark in cases of bronchitis and others, where a preter-
natural amount of expectoration existed, also in cough.
Perhaps no remedy yet tried has been accompanied by an effect so
uniform in each case.
ASSARA OR ARARA_ . . . is described as an emetic. The strength
used was four and a half ounces to eighty ounces of boiling water,
which was then boiled for half an hour ; the result was a liquid of a red-
dish yellow-colour, free from odour, with a slightly astringent, barky
taste—perhaps a little sickly. The decoction is free from the warm,
mucilaginous nature which characterizes the decoction of senega root.
I gave it in cases of cough with expectoration or of dry
cough with difficult expectoration and consequent dyspneea. The result
of my observations is that, first, assava,in the doses above given, is
not an emetic in the true sense of the word; but in five cases out of six
the cough was materially lessened . . . . andthe general condition
of the patient improved. In every respect the medicine seemed to
act like Kuruballi, and like the decoction of senega root which is so
well known here, but not so effectual as these medicines.
Ewonc-EkE. . . . A decoction of four and a half ounces of bark
to twenty of boiling water, kept in a state of ebullition for thirty min-
utes, gives a liquid of a pale, turbid, champagne aspect, bitter, but not
nauseous. The bark is said to be useful ‘‘ in dry belly-ache,” a disease
like the painters colic. . . . From the result in halfa dozen cases,
J am at a loss to perceive its value ‘in belly ache or colic,’ as it appears
to me to have neither purgative nor astringent, anodyne nor anti-spas-
modic properties, in any marked degree . . . . The effect upon
the system generally seemed to be beneficial; . . . sothat I look
on it as a feeble tonic.”
YARI-YARI . . . - ‘used in all cases of worms.” Whether the
354 TIMEHRI.
decoction should have been made stronger, whether drinking the medi-
cine hot does make a difference, or whether the bark had been wrongly
labelled, I cannot say; but the medicine appeared to be quite destitute
of anthelmintic power.
KomarA . . . is described as one of the chief medicines used in
intermittent fever . . . The decoction is warm and slightly strin-
gent to the taste, neither bitter nor disagreeable. I have given this
bark in several well-marked cases of low fever with coated tongue, rapid
pulse, headache, deranged bowels &c, with considerable benefit.
The medicine was given every four or six hours . . , . Ican
readily understand this medicine being more useful in South America,
where the decoction can be made fresh and fresh, and drunk freely ©
whilst still hot.
With a decoction of Komara nitric and sulphuric acids throw down a
red or yellow precipitate , but the alkalies do not deepen the colour ; a
proto-salt of iron causes a brown precipitate, but a per-salt none.
WuitE CEDAR . . . . was contributed as a medicine likely to be
of great value in the treatment of complaints peculiar to the urinary
organs. . . . A decoction of about four ounces to twenty ounces of
water is of a deep-red colour, with a peculiar, rather bitter, and disa-
greeable taste. Time has only permitted me to try its effects upon two
patients,—with benefit in both cases.”
KOBE-REE. This bark I] have tried in several cases of slight fever
but with very little effect.
Concluding his remarks, Mr. HUNTER expresses his
disappointment at not having found among those which
he examined more medicines of very decided merit ;
some seemed to him not even to merit mention; others
seemed to equal in value, but not to surpass, other medi-
cines already in use and obtainable in any required
quantity. Yet there are some, he adds, which should
undoubtedly be added to the pharmacopeeia, and of these
he makes especial mention of douzarz.
OCCASIONAL NOTES. 355
Couvade.—The following additional instances of ‘ cou-
vade’ were written out for me by their observer, Mr. R. L.
KINGSTON, who now lives on the Tapacooma Lake, but
formerly lived at the mouth of the Yowramai Creek of
the Pomeroon River.
I.
“Some years ago the young Indian wife of a couple living on the
Yowrama Creek brought forth her first child. The father, a civilized
Indian, to please the old woman in attendance on his young wife, took
to his hammock; and being in want of a new bow-string, thinking it
a good opportunity, twisted one. Just as he finished, the child began
to cry and stream. The midwife made a row, and made the poor fellow
sit down and undo his whole line, saying that in twisting the line he
had twisted up the entrails of the child.”
26
“Some years ago a young Indian woman from the Akaiweeni Creek
was employed by an Arawack living on the Tapacooma Creek to weed
a field of growing cassava. The price agreed upon was four dollars.
While working the woman became pregnant. As this was not known
to her employer, she was allowed to eat of the game which was shot
from time to time. The employer had a fine hunting deg; but one
morning when he went out with this, the dog would not hunt. The
man came home, caught hold of the dog and gave the poor brute a
severe peppering ; but it was of no use, the dog never hunted again.
However, the woman’s pregnancy was discovered before she finished
weeding , and not accent did she get. The four dollars were stopped,
as payment for the dog she had spoiled by eating of its game while
knowing herself to be pregnant.”
By
“ While some (True) Caribs were poisoning the upper Pomeroon with
haiavi for fish, I saw one of them rub his shins with the beaten and
washed out haiari. Asking why he did this, he told me his wife was
with child, and that he could not therefore go into the water without
first rubbing his legs with haivai, lest all the fish should sink to the
bottom.”
VV
356 TIMEHRI.
Etymology of the word ‘Grail-stick ’—Referring to a
previous note on this subject, the correspondent to whom
I am indebted for the just quoted information about cou-
vade writes :-—
“The old Dutch colonists used a turn-out called a curricle. When
driving a pair, they used a pole with a cross-piece attached having a
ring at each end, by which the cross-piece was buckled up to the
collars of the horses. This cross-piece was called a ‘ greel-stoke.’”
ee Oe
“ Fascination’ by Snakes.—From time to time some
little attention has been paid to a power said to be pos-
sessed by snakes of ‘fascinating,’ and so capturing, their
prey. In his recent and itself most ‘fascinating’ book
on “Animal Inteiligence’’*, Mr. ROMANES has very brief-
ly summed up the evidence for and against the reality
of this power. He quotes a typical instance, which will
make the nature of ‘fascination’ plain to readers of
Limehri:—
‘““ Mr. Pennant says this snake (rattle-snake) will frequently lie at the
pottom of a tree on which a squirrel is seated. He fixes his eyes on the
animal, and from that moment it cannot escape ; it begins a doleful
outcry, which is so well known that a passer-by, on hearing it, imme-
diately knows that a snake is present. The squirrel runs up the tree a
little way, comes down again, then goes up, and afterwards comes
lower still. The snake continues at the bottom of the tree with its eyes
fixed on the squirrel, and his attention is so entirely taken up, that a
person accidentally approaching may make a considerable noise with-
out somuch asthe snake turning about. The squirrel comes lower,
and at last leaps down to the snake, whose mouth is already distended
for its reception.”
* Animal Intelligence”, by GzorGr J. Romanes, M. A., L. L. D.,
F.R.S. (International Scientific Series,) London, 1882, p. 263.
OCCASIONAL NOTES. 357
Here, writing in a Guiana magazine, | may add that a
similar instance of ‘ fascination’ will be found in our own
classic, CHARLES WATERTON’S ‘‘ Wanderings in South
America.’’*
It is obvious that ‘fascination,’ in the sense of those
who believe in its exercise by snakes, is something akin
to mesmerism. But the conclusion indicated by Mr.
ROMANES is, in words quoted from SIR JOSEPH FAYRER,
a most excellent authority on snakes, that “fascination is
only fright.”
My reason for referring to the subject here is that, in
reading Mr. ROMANES’ book, it occurred to me that in
all I have read on the subject under notice I remember
no allusion to the fact that, as most people have surely
experienced, we are ourselves not infrequently the sub-
jects of fascination, in our dreams. Then, some terrific
object, some terrific danger, appearing to us, we feel, and
a most terrible sensation it is, absolutely incapable of ac-
tion, even of the slightest movement out of the way of
this danger. In fact, alike to us during such dreams and
to the squirrel of the above-quoted story, fascination is
simply, and in the most literal sense, Joss of presence of
mind.
If this is so, it seems not improbable that the sub-
ject under fascination, whether it be a man or some
lower animal, in thus more or less completely losing
power of volition, simply reverts for the time to a lower
stage of psychological evolution than that attained by, and
proper to, its kind when under normal circumstances ;
that is, supposing the subject under fascination to be a
* tst Edition, London, 1825. p. 100.
VV 2
358 TIMEHRI.
man, his mental faculties for the time being are not those
of the human race, but may be those proper, perhaps in
slighter cases, to the lower mammalia or even to some
of the yet lower articulates, or, perhaps in extreme cases,
in which that most dreadful feeling of utter and entire
incapacity of volition is experienced, his mental faculties
for the time being may be simply those of the polyp
attached to its rock.
The Barbarian view of Guiana.—The barbarian view
of our colony, the expression of which is met with but too
often, is really a very serious subject ; for the calumnious
reputation of Guiana, as nearly the most forlorn, deso-
late and deadly of the places lighted by the sun, is, despite
its astounding falseness, a serious hindrance to progress.
It has, however, also often a very comic side ; and as pro-
bably the most remarkable existing instance of this,
the following note, which appears in THOMAS W. FIELD’S
well known and valuable “ Indian Bibliography,” in allu-
sion to the Rev. W. H. BRETT’s book on the “Indian
Tribes of Guiana” (1868) may be given.*
“ Neither the horrors of a forest savannah stretching hundreds of
miles without sufficient dry ground to build a camp upon ; the danger
of receiving a flight of arrows freighted with the deadly ouarri poison,
from the tameless savages of the hills, or the equally subtle and less
avoidable pestilence which pervades every breath of the malaria satu-
rated atmosphere, could appal the missionaries of the Cross to the
Caribs and other wild savages of Guiana. The forest is twined with
* An Essay towards an Indian Bibliography, being a Catalogue of
Books relating to the . . . . American Indians, in the library of
Tuomas W. Fietp, New York 1873. p. 45.
OCCASIONAL NOTES. 359
gigantic serpents above, and roamed by ferocious beasts below, the
paths are barred by the webs of monstrous and poisonous spiders, and
every rotten trunk houses a hundred centipedes. On the shores hides
the loathsome cayman, or basks the rattle-snake ; and in the water
millions of ferocious little fish, whose mouths are armed with steel
traps, fasten with resistless voracity on the intruding stranger. A/l
we know of the aborigines who inhabit these deadly climes is communt-
cated by such fearless missionaries as Brett and Bernau.”
To me, living in the very place where Mr. BRETT, a
few years ago, did his good and really earnest work as a
missionary, surrounded by no savages, troubled by no
beasts more fierce than musquitoes, his chief difficulty
being the exercise of the almost superhuman patience
needed to overcome the shyness and reserve of the kindly
gentle Indians, the above extract seems to refer, not to Mr.
BRETT’S very soberly told story, but rather to some ac-
count of Guiana which EDGAR ALLEN POE, never having
been here, might have written in some wilder mood than
ever even he was in, and which GUSTAVE DORE, inspired
beyond his wont by the madness of POE, might have il-
lustrated.
And, in case this note should be seen by any future
bibliographer of American Indians, it may be as well to
add that, valuable as are Mr. BRETT’S, though hardly Mr.
BERNAU’S, facts about the Indians of Guiana, another
much more considerable and extremely valuable account
of our Indians was published twenty years before Mr.
BRETT wrote, by Dr. RICHARD SCHOMBURGK*.
sass ee
New Local Literature.--Two new books on Guiana
* “ Reisen in Britisch-Guiana, von RICHARD SCHOMBURGK.” Leip-
zig 1847,
360 TIMERRI.
have been published since the last issue of Zimehrr*.
Mr. BRONKHURST’S book is avowedly a medley of arti-
cles contributed by the compiler to various newspapers,
together with many scraps by other writers, from similar
sources. The subjects dealt with are chiefly those con-
cerning our very varied labouring population. East
Indians, Chinese, Portuguese, Negroes are all told of ; and
a few notes concerning the upper classes during the
earlier times of the colony are included. The most in-
teresting portions of the book are the scattered notices of
the modifications of their national customs, religious and
other, which the East Indians and Chinese have made in
consequence of their new surroundings in this new home
of theirs. No one who is, or has been, in Guiana can
turn over the pages of this book without finding passages
both interesting and instructive; but so little care has
been exercised in the arrangement of the material that
few will probably attempt to read it through, and still few-
er will probably succeed in this attempt.
Of the other book it is, for obvious reasons inexpedient
to treat here; and it is sufficient to record that it gives:
some hints of the experience to be expected by a tra-
veller in this colony ; an account of the Kaieteur Fall,
one of the two great natural features of the colony ;
sketches of the plant and animal life; and then an
elaborate account of the Indians of Guiana, their
tribes, appearance, habits, dress, religion, folk-lore,
et. cet.; and finally an account of the stone im-
* “The Colony of British Guiana and its Labouring Population” by
the Rev. H. V. P. Bronkuurst, London, 1883.
“ Among the Indians of British Guiana,” by Everarp F. 1m THuRN,
M.A., London, 1883.
OCCASIONAL NOTES. 361
plements, shell mounds, rock pictures and other antiquities
discovered in the colony.
The catalogue of contributions sent from this colony to
the Calcutta Exhibition has also been published, in pam-
phlet form*. From its very nature, the catalogue itself,
though valuable as a record, can not be very interesting
reading. But prefixed to it is a brief account of British
Guiana: an account of our sugar industry, this being we
believe from the pen of the Hon. W. RUSSELL: anda
reprinted essay by Mr. HENRY KIRKE on our immigra-
tion system. ‘The account seems to be founded partly on
the description published in the directory annually pub-
lished at the office of the Colonist, which is itself, ap3
parently founded on various descriptions published in the
catalogues of previous exhibitions. Mr. KIRKE’S essay, good
in its original place of publication, among the ‘‘ Russell
Prize Essays ” of 1877-8, being now attached to a publica-
tion which will probably have some small circulation in
India, from which country by far the larger part of our
labouring population is drawn, loses none of its original
value.
Se
New Plant from Guiana,—The following extraét is
from “‘ The Gardeners Chronicle ”’ of the 4th of August :—
ACROSTICHUM (ELAPHOGLOSSUM) MAGNUM. Baker, 1. sp.
This is a large new Acrostichum of the sub-genus Elaphoglossum,
which was discovered in 1880 by Mr. G. S. Jenman, on the banks of
the Mazaruni River, in British Guiana, and of which he has just sent
living plants to Kew. It is allied to A. perelegans and A. auricomum.
* Catalogue of the Exhibits sent from British Guiana to the Calcutta
Exhibition. Demerara, The Argosy Press, 1883.
362 TIMEHRI.
Root-stock suberect. Basal paleze small, linear subulate, nearly black.
Stipes tufted, those of the barren frond 3—4 inches long, clothed with
small lanceolate adpressed fimbriated membranous palez. Sterile
lamina 2—3 feet long, 13—2 inches broad at the middle, narrowed
gradually to the apex and base, membranous in texture, green on both
sides, the palez of the upper surface numerous but inconspicuous,
minute, ovate, adpressed, whitish, deeply fimbriated, of the under side
densest on the midrib, not adpressed, minute, membranous, lanceolate,
ferruginous, densely fimbriated ; veins slightly ascending, moderately
close, distinct, simple or forked. Fertile frond not yet seen. . G.
Baker.
—
Dutch Guiana at the Amsterdam Exhibition.—Our
neighbour-colony has done well at this exhibition. Mr.
C. J. HERING of Paramaribo has received the following
honours ; a silver medal for a most elaborate bibliogra-
phy of Dutch Guiana, a M.S. copy of which he most
kindly sent me some six months ago, to be used in the
long, but unavoidably, delayed compilation of a general
bibliography of Guiana for the pages of Z7mehri; a
second silver medal for a set of very well kept diagrams
illustrating the meteorology of Surinam ; and, for other
contributions, one gold and two bronze medals beside a
certificate of honourable mention. Mr. M. R. MATTISs,
also of Paramaribo, received a gold medal for a set of
fine casts of fishes, similar to the admirable set which he
made and sold to the Georgetown Museum.
——
The Representation of the Colony at Exhibitions.—
There are many interested in the colony who regret that
British Guiana was not represented at.the Amsterdam
OCCASIONAL NOTES. 363
Exhibition; many, again, regret that the colony was
not represented at the recent Fisheries Exhibition ; and
there are many, on the other hand, who, seeing with
alarm how frequently we are now-a-days called upon to
contribute to exhibitions and how considerablean expense
is unavoidable incurred each time response is made to
these appeals, regard all such shows with great disfavour.
Even at this moment appeal is being made to the
colony to represent itself at a forthcoming Forestry Ex-
hibition ; and, seeing that next to, but a long way after,
sugar our forests yield the most important of our produce,
this appeal seems more than usually pertinent. But,
even while this matter is still under consideration, it is
announced that the buildings lately erected for the Fish-
erles Exhibition are to be utilized for displays, in 1884
of sanitary appliances, in 1885 of recent inventions, and
in 1886 of general colonial produce. The thought,
thereupon, occurs, whether, in place of partial but re-
peated representation at several of these many successive
exhibitions, it would not be far better and of much great-
er advantage to the colony to reserve its strength for
one very complete and, more or less, final representa-
tion at the Colonial Exhibition to be held in 1886. With
nearly three years for preparation, an effort might be
made, in accordance with some properly organized
scheme, which would result in the represention of
the colony, at a comparatively small expense, in
a way which would be at once unprecedented and
almost final. And in further recommendation of this
proposal it may be urged; tst, that by providing
in the scheme that the collections exhibited should be,
as far as desirable, the property of our local museum,
Ww
364 TIMEHRI.
in which they should eventually find a permanent place,
an unprecedented opportunity would be afforded of
gathering a worthy local collection of colonial produce ;
2ndly, that by providing that the collections should, as
far as possible, be in duplicate—especially if other
colonies would act on a similar scheme—such an
opportunity as could hardly be resisted would be
afforded of forming in London the long desired
permanent colonial museum; and 3rdly, that by taking
the opportunity of publishing, in connection with this
Colonial Exhibition of 1886, a very complete catalogue
not only of the produce of the colony actually exhibited
but also of such other products as might be absent from
the collections sent for exhibition, either because they
were not at the time procurable or because they could
not easily be shown, a complete and, for a time, final
report on the products and capacities of the colony
would be provided. That this journal may further,
as far as lies in its power, this suggestion, it is
proposed to include in the next number [June 1884], a
detailed suggestion of the best mode of effecting this
thorough representation of British Guiana at the Colonial
Exhibition to be held in London in 1886.
—————
Errata.—On page 66 of the present volume of
Timehri, the date of ROGER NORTH’S enterprize to
Guiana is misprinted 1650 for 1620. On page ro4, |
inserted a note to the effect that the word cabacaburi
in Arawak means ‘‘silk cotton tree” (Eriodendron
anfractuosum) ;1 am informed on good authority that
OCCASIONAL NOTES. 365
this is a mistake, but the real meaning of the word has
not been given to me. Again, on page 132, by a slip
of the pen | wrote that warracada is the Carib, yacoméz
the Arawak, name for the trumpet bird (Psophia
crepitans), thus transposing the Arawak and the Carib
name for this bird. Since the instalment of the ‘ notes’
on West Indian Stone Implements included in _ this
number of the Zzmehrz has been in type, I have become
aware that the very curious ‘banner-stone’ therein des-
cribed and figured (p. 255, Pl. 5) is the property, not as I
supposed of Mr. ROUSELLET, but of Mr. E. L. ATKINSON,
and came, not from St. Lucia, but from St. Vincent.
EVERARD F, im THURN.
AES
Ww 3
IN MEMORIAM: William Hunter Campbell, L.L.D.
Born in Edinburgh, a.p. 1814: Died in London, the 3rd Nov-
ember, A.D. 1883.
NOT quite two years ago, when, on the morning after
the first decisive step toward the establishment of this
Journal had been taken, there came to me very unex-
pected and sorrowful news of family bereavement, then
my most kind friend WILLIAM HUNTER CAMPBELL came
at once to me, and his first words were, ‘“ Last night
when I left you all seemed so bright and hopeful; and
now to day has come this change.”’ These words came
back to me, on the arrival of the last English mail,
when, on looking through my letters, I found first, and
with exceeding pleasure, the earliest copy of a long ex-
pected new book, and then, to my great sorrow, news of
Mr. CAMPBELL’S death. Tome, from the day when I
first came to Guiana to that later day, last June, when I
visited him to say goodbye, merely as I then thought
before his visit to England, but really, as it now appears,
for ever, Mr. CAMPBELL has been the kindest, the most
sympathetic and the most helpful of friends. It seems
as though to the friend now lost I owed the opportunity
of doing such work, very pleasant to me, as I have been
able to do in Guiana. Thus dwelling for a moment, as
I perhaps should not, on my private sorrow for a man
whose death, though it is to me a great calamity, isa
yet much greater calamity to this colony of his adoption,
and more especially to the Society of which this Journal
is the organ, the solemn and touching words of the most
IN MEMORIAM: W. H. CAMPBELL, L.L.D. 367
beautiful of all the Horatian odes seem to sound in my
ear :—
Quis desiderio sit pudor aut modus
Tam cari capitis ?...............
Ergo Quinctilium perpetuus sopor
Urget! cui Pudor, et Justitize soror
Incorrupta Fides, nudaque Veritas,
Quando ullum inveniet parem ?
Multis ille bonis flebilis occidit ;
Nulli flebilior quam tibi, Virgil.
All in this land should, and most will, mourn the
Quinctilius who has gone from us; but it seems as though
it would be hard to say which among many of us may
fitly mourn him most, as Virgil for Quinctilius.
Born in Edinburgh in 1814, and educated, eventually
as a lawyer, in his native Scotland, where he was the
fellow collegian, at Glasgow, of his life-long friend Sir
JOSEPH HOOKER, the widely known and as widely hon-
oured Direétor of Kew Gardens, Mr. CAMPBELL came
to this colony about 1840, and has since been more
rarely an absentee from this land than almost any
other colonist of equal standing. He himself used to
say that he allowed himself one visit home at the end of
every ten years; and in the earlier part of this year,
though his painful illness seemed sufficient cause, he was
unwilling to break through his rule by going home, for ad-
vice, before 1885, by which time he would have completed
another decade of colonial life. It is sad to think that
his wish, more than once expressed to me, that he might
live out his life to the end in the colony which, more
completely than most of his fellows, he had adopted as
his home, has not been fulfilled; but, on the other hand,
it is pleasant to remember that as, on the 7th of last
368 TIMEHRI.
month, he was laid in his grave in a London cemetery,
there stood by more than one of those who had long
been associated with him, as dear friends, in his distant
home.
In the law courts of the colony Mr. CAMPBELL had a
peculiarly successful career, very soon taking a leading
position, which he retained, and indeed improved, up to
the end. The many who know the extreme method and
care which he used in all that he did, even outside his
professional business, will understand this.
But there is one particular feature in his life’s work on
which it seems more especially right to dwell in these
pages. He was ever the prime mover in nearly all the more
purely intelleétual and scientific advances made in the
colony. One of the chief among the original founders of
the Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society, and its
honorary secretary from the beginning up to the
day of his death, a very large number of his
good works took the form of constantly enlarging
and improving the functions of that Society; its
library,. especially during recent years, has been
guarded and increased chiefly by him; the forma-
tion of its museum and, though at a considerably later
period, the appointment of a curator for this museum,
were largely due to his exertions; every of the many
exhibitions, local and foreign, in which the Society,
acting for the colony, has taken part have been fostered
and cared for chiefly by him; even this very journal in
which I am writing owes its successful foundation largely
to his co-operation. And, though not directly connected
with the Society, yet akin in spirit, the botanical gardens
now growing with unhoped speed toward complete success
In MEmMoRIAM: W. H. CAMPBELL, L.L.D. 369
really owe their initiation almost entirely to Mr. CAMp-
BELL, who long and earnestly urged their 1ormation, for
many years vainly, but at last, to his great and just
delight, with success.
A lesson may be learned by considering the means by
which he accomplished these good works. In the first
place, his character won for him the friendship of all the
best men in the colony; and the influence he thus gained
he always conscientiously used to the best advantage.
His scientific attainments, which have often been mis-
understood, were considerable; and these were of a nature
which made them especially valuable to his fellow
colonists under the circumstances in which he was
placed. He was never a specialist, unless perhaps to
some small degree as a botanist. But his mind, naturally
acute, had been so thoroughly and widely trained that
he was well able to take an intelligent interest in, and
speedily to grasp, any special set of scientific facts which
were brought to his notice; and as soon as these were
grasped, he almost invariably was able to judge rightly of
their value. Once convinced of their value, he was ever both
eager, however much work this might entail upon him, and
able, owing to his just influence, to advance them. He
was, as it were, and in this lay his great value to the
colony, a centre to which all those among his fellow
colonists who felt any literary or scientific yearnings
went with full certainty of finding sympathy, and, if this
was in any way possible, help.
Of his quaint and charming humour, of his graceful
courtesy, his geniality, his hospitality, his true kindness
and of the strength of his friendship, as on things widely
known, there is no need to write.
370 TIMEHRI.
Our loss is great. But, in the closing words of the
dirge which Horace sang :—
Quod si Threicio blandius Orpheo
Auditam moderere arboribus fidem ;
Non vane redeat sanguis imagini,
Quam virga semel horrida,
Non lenis precibus fata recludere,
Nigro compulerit Mercurius greg1.
Durum : sed levius fit patientia,
Quicquid corrigere est nefas.
E._F..1 T.
Report of the Meetings of the Society.
Meeting held rath of Fuly—Mr. F. E. Dampier in
the chair.
There were 11 members present.
Ele€lions—Members: M. Williamson, M.D.; Revd.
R. H. Williams ; Revd. Ernest Sloman.
Associate: C. P. Gaskin.
Treasurer’s Accounts.—The Treasurer stated that he
had not yet been able to make out the statement of the
Society’s accounts for the past quarter.
The Calcutta Exhibition.—Mr. Glaisher said that the
committee, of which he was a member, appointed by the
Committee of Correspondence to look after exhibits to
be sent on to the Calcutta Exhibition, had advertised in
all the local papers and sent circulars to planters
and others throughout the colony asking for samples of
all descriptions, and that he had himself written person-
ally to many. He thought that the exhibits would be
few, but fairly representative. The notice being so
short, they could scarcely expect good exhibits.
Owing to most of .the estates not grinding at this time,
good samples of sugar could not be got; those of bush
produéts would be fair.
Destruction of Sugar Canes.—Mr. W. H. Nicholson
of Pln. Harm said he had brought some samples of cane-
plants to ask for information as to what destroyed them.
He found them drawn out of the ground and partly
eaten, and he was of opinion it might have been done by
a crab dog.
XX
372 TIMEHRI.
Mr. Glaisher said, after examining the specimens,
that it seemed to have been done by some mammal.
The specimens were left in his charge for further report.
The meeting then dispersed.
Meeting held 9th August—Mr. T. H. Glennie in the
chair.
There were 10 members present.
Eleétions.—Members: D. Callum, M.D.; His Honour
J. T. Goldney ; Rev. J. G. Pearson.
Associates: R. B. Greene; Jacob Holtz-
man; Murdoch McLeod, Jr.
Treasurer's Accounts.—The Treasurer laid over the
accounts for the last quarter and stated that the balance
in favour of the Society was 81,1707.
Timehri.—Part 1 of the second volume of this journal
was formally laid on the table.
The Calcutta Exhibttion—Mr. Glaisher, Curator of
the Museum, submitted a report on the exhibits to be
forwarded by this colony to the forthcoming Calcutta
Exhibition. The report was to the following effeét:—
In making my report of the progress made in collecting the various
productions of the colony for the International Exhibition to be held
at Calcutta, I have much pleasure in saying that the number of general
exhibits has exceeded my expectations. I think I may say that in all
classes, with the exception of two, our exhibits will greatly exceed in
number the exhibits sent to the last International Exhibition held at
Paris.
These two classes, unfortunately, are the most important, viz., sugar
and rum; but even in these classes we shall not be nearly so defective as
appeared probable, I think we shall have between twenty and thirty
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 373
——$————— - —_—$—$—$—$—$—$—————
samples of sugar and about forty samples of rum. The reason of this
defect is very obvious; the six weeks’ notice of the Exhibition hap-
pened to fall at a most unfortunate time of the year, when very few
estates were grinding.
As regards the other classes, in food products other than sugar we
are well represented, samples of almost everything grown in the colony
being already in the possession of the committee.
The class containing medicinal barks, fibres and roots is very tho-
roughly represented, owing to the energetic action of Messrs. Seon and
Couchman, of the Demerara River, in collecting exhibits.
Of starches we have a fine set to despatch to Calcutta, permission
having been granted to send the Museum specimens ; and many others
have also been procured.
Samples of colonial fruits will be sent in the form of preserves, this
being the best way in my opinion.
By permission of the Directors, a foot was cut off each of the sam-
ples of wood exhibited in the gallery outside the Museum. The pieces
cut were polished and smoothed, and form a very good collection.
We have also some beautiful pieces of carved wood made in the
colony, which will illustrate the splendid nature of the wood for cabinet
work.
Ethnographical specimens form, however, our best section.
Photographic views of different estates will be sent, and also an album
containing views of the interior of the colony.
The exhibits will leave here for Calcutta by next mail ; and I think
the people of Calcutta should be able to form a good idea of the various
products to be met with in this colony.
A vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Glaisher for his
report.
Presentation of a Tamtl M.S.—A M.S. written in
Tamil on papyrus leaves was presented by the members
of the Berbice Reading Society. It was decided to sub-
mit the M.S. to the Rev. R. H. Moor, for report as to
its nature and whether it is advisable to translate the
same for publication in the Society’s Journal.
Destruction of Sugar-Canes.—Mr. Glaisher said that
at the last meeting of the society Mr. Nicholson brough
XX 2
374 TIMEHRI.
down several canes which had been torn out of the ground
and split apparently by some animal, which Mr. Nichol-
son thought might be a yawarri (Dzdelphys) or a crab
dog (Canis cancrivorus). Mr. Nicholson had sent him
down some more canes, similarly destroyed, and he
had cleaned them and found teeth-marks which cor-
responded in several instances with the teeth in the
skull of acrab dog in the Museum. The teeth-marks did
not all correspond, but it might be that a smaller crab
dog than the one the skull of which was in the Museum
had torn the canes. He did not think it had beena yaw-
arri. Mr. Nicholson had informed him that near where
these canes were torn were other canes with more sac-
charine matter in them, and he had come to the conclu-
sion that the crab dogs had split the cane plants for the
purpose of getting at the grub or worm in the inside.
Donations.—Presented by Rev. Thomas Farrar :—
Pamphlet containing an Ordination Sermon Preached in St. Philip’s
Church, Georgetown, on the Feast of S. Barnabas by the Rev. Tomas
FARRAR, B.D. (1883.) ;
Pamphlet “Res Anglo-Israelitice.” Discussed Scripturally, Ethno-
logically, Philologically, by the Rev. THomas Farrar, B.D. and the
Rev. F. P. Luiei Josa, (1882).
The meeting then dispersed.
Meeting held 13th September.—Mr. Justice King in
the chair.
There were 10 members present.
Elections.—Associates : Joseph Bayne, Frank S, Sealy,
J. R, Wickham, W. W, Crail,
REPORT OF SOCIETY'S MEETINGS. 378
A Wasted Water-power.—Mr. Luke M. Hill read the
following note :—
Having been frequently struck by the great volume of water dischar-
ged from roofs during heavy tropical rains, it occurred to me that the
power so wasted might be utilized in some way. With a view of calling
attention to the matter I have collected together some data relating to
the subject, and have embodied them in the paper which I have now
the honour of submitting to this Society.
Taking the area of the city of Georgetown within its municipal limits
at 1,000 acres, and assuming that one-fourth of this area is covered with
roofs of an average height of 20 feet, we have a means of estimating
the amount of work done by the fall of water discharged from this
roofed area to the ground. Calculating on an annual rainfall of 100
inches over the area, I find that the units of work so done amount in the
year to no less than 3,400,000 horse power, or an average of 9,300
horse-power per day. This work is of course variable, depending en-
tirely on the duration and weight of the rainfall, as time has to enter
largely into our calculations of horse-power. A rainfall of one inch in
an hour—which is no unusual downpour—would, on the former
assumption as to area, &c., develop work equal to 566 horse-power in
a minute.
This work is necessarily distributed over a large area, but confining
our calculations to Water Street alone, where the roofed area is pro-
portionately greater than any other parts of the city, and assuming the
length of the street to be 5,000 feet, with a 200 feet width of roofing,
of an average height of 20 feet, I find the units of work developed by
a 100 inches rainfall to be 320,000 horse-power per annum, and by one
inch of rain falling in an hour equal to 54 horse-power per minute.
From the roof of the Stabroek Market alone the annual developement
of work is equal to 28,000 horse-power.
Having pointed out that the power so wasted over the city is no small
quantity, I will now endeavour to suggest a means by which it might
be utilized by converting it into electricity.
The rainfall from each roof might be conducted into one main down
pipe, in which would work a small turbine wheel driving a dynamo-
electric machine, the electricity so developed by every passing shower
to be stored in accumulators of the type of Faure's secondary batteries.
These as they become charged, in variable time depending on the rain-
fall, could be collected and stored at central depots, whence the power
376 TIMEHRI.
could afterwards be distributed uniformly, either by electro-dynamic
engines or utilized directly for electric lighting.
The practical application of my ideas, which I fear I have put before
you in a very crude form, I must leave to others ; my object has sim-
ply been to ventilate the subject, leaving the inventive genius of the
age to develop something useful out of it if the matter is thought
worthy of further consideration.
The Cultivation of India-Rubber Trees in the Colony.
Mr. R. W. Imlach, Acting Secretary, stated that he had
received a letter, dated on the 17th July, 1883, on this
subje€t from Mr. J. A. Robinson, of Mount Street
House, Wrexham, North Wales ; he added, with refer-
ence to the previous letter to which Mr. Robinson made
reference, that, in the absence in England of Mr. W. H.
Campbell, the Secretary, to whom the missing letter must
have been addressed, there was no record of its receipt.*
The letter was as follows :—
Sir,—Some time ago I ventured to trouble you respecting a project
for cultivating trees of the india-rubber species, the chief feature—a
most valuable one—being the propagation of these from adult stems,
thus very materially hastening the period of yielding. The method is
very simple when known: it is successful, and it is known only to my-
self and another. For reasons given in my former letter, we are desir-
ous, if possible, of carrying out the project in British Guiana. My
former letter on the subject may not have come to your hands, and I
now beg to ask the favour of a reply from you, as to whether it is likely
either your society, or any one member of it, would take an interest in
the undertaking ? We ourselves know the practicability of the business,
and the great prospects it affords in the future, if properly started, and
are ready to throw ourselves into it to the extent of our means, relying
entirely upon vesults, of which we are confident.
* The missing letter from Mr. Robinson was handed by Mr. Camp-
bell, before his departure to England, to the Editor of Timehri, with a
request, subsequently fulfilled, that it should be answered. As Mr.
Robinson requested strict privacy in his letter, it was dealt with without
reference to the Society. Ep.
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 377
We do not wish to lose another season. We wish to establish the
business in a British colony as a matter of preference, and as we are
unacquainted, personally, with any one in the colony, may I beg the
great favour of areply, with, possibly, if you do not care to enter into
the matter on behalf of Society, a list of names of the members, as we
should like to communicate with one or more of them onthe subject.
They will, we presume, be probably well acquainted with the trees and
their produce, and it is only such gentlemen we would wish to broach
our scheme to.
Apologising for the trouble we have given,—I am, Sir, Yours &c.
J. A. ROBINSON.
Mount Street House, Wrexham,
17th July, 1883.
It was ordered that the letter should be referred to Mr.
Jenman for report.
Lhe Cost of “ Timehri”.—The Acting Secretary laid
on the table a statement of the account for publishing
Timehri as it stood at the end of June 1883, at which
time 52 subscribers were in arrears; and he added, in
answer to a question, that the Journal did not at present
pay the entire cost of its production.
It was ordered that circulars should be issued to those
in arrears.
The Calcutta Exhibition.—The Acting Secretary read
a letter from the Government Secretary, in reply to a
communication from the Society, intimating that the
$2,000 already voted by the Court of Policy to defray
the expenses of the representation of the colony at the
Calcutta Exhibition was the total amount available for
that purpose. The Acting Secretary stating that the
amount mentioned would not cover all the expenditure
which would probably be incurred in Calcutta, the mat-
ter was referred for the consideration of the Committee
of Correspondence,
378 TIMEHRI.
The Curator of the Museum stated that now that
the Calcutta exhibits had been sent away, he wished
to draw a short comparison between the exhibits for-
warded to this Exhibition and those which had been
sent to the Paris Exhibition. + To the Paris Exhibition
there were sent away altogether 74 samples of sugar, and
to Calcutta, 35 samples ; of coloured rum there were sent
to Paris 34 samples, and of uncoloured rum 27, while to
Calcutta there were sent only 15 samples of the former
and 12 of the latter. With respect to other articles ; of
coffee, cocoa, rice, &c., altogether 48 samples had been
sent to Calcutta, and only 12 samples of this division
went to Paris. There had also been sent to Calcutta,
26 samples of fruits preserved in bottles, peppers and
pickles, whereas none of these were sent to Paris; of
chemical and pharmaceutical products, there were sent
to Calcutta 26 samples, while only 17 had been sent to
Paris ; portions of all the specimens of woods sent to the
Paris Exhibition had now been forwarded to Calcutta,
accompanied by wallaba wood made up into shingles and
palings, dressed and undressed ; together with this last
collection was sent to Calcutta the descriptive account by
Mr. McTurk, who was no doubt the best authority on this
+ It should be observed that when the subject of the representation
of the colony at the last Paris Exhibition was utider consideration, it
was detefmined by the Exhibition Committee that, in place of the
miscellaneous odds and ends usually sent to such Exhibitions, only
articles belonging to several selected classes should be sent. For
instance, of ethnological objects only hammocks, pottery and basket
work were selected for exhibition, thus representing the three industries,
of those proper to our aborigines, which might possibly, might at any
rate most easily, be encouraged among these people and be developed
into commercial industries, Ep.
REPORT OF SOCIETY'S MEETINGS. 379
subject in the whole colony. Sixty one specimens of
medicinal barks were forwarded to Calcutta, none to Paris.
It was hoped that some one would take the trouble of
inquiring into the properties of these barks, as some of
them might be found to be valuable remedies. In the
section of fibres, fifteen specimens were sent to Calcutta,
and to Paris only seven. Three of the specimens now
sent were perfectly new—Mr. Jenman said he had never
heard of them before. In the ethnological department,
61 specimens had been sent, against 18 to Paris. Of
miscellaneous articles, which could not be conveniently
classed under any other section (such as painted cala-
bashes, colony wood walking sticks, &c.), there were 6
exhibits. To the Paris Exhibition the whole of the
views in the Museum were sent; and the best of these
had been sent to Calcutta. A perfectly novel feature in
connection with the present Exhibition consisted in
the photographs, of which there were altogether 35
representing different estates, 7 of Georgetown, and
an album which contained scenes from the interior,
as well as pictures of estates, and machinery ; amounting
in the whole to 64. So that in every department, with
the exception of sugar and rum, the staple products of
the colony, more was sent to Calcutta than to Paris. A
catalogue of the exhibits forwarded would be ready by
next mail. The Curator wished to acknowledge the ser-
vices of Mr. Fresson, whom he always found extremely
willing to give him assistance.
The meeting then dispersed.
ee
YY
380 TIMEHRI.
Meeting held r1th of Octobery—The Hon. William
Russell in the chair.
There were 10 members present.
Elections.—Meméer : R. M. Clegg.
Assoctates: R. Duff, E. Cross,
Treasurer's Accounts——The accounts to the 3oth of
September, being laid on the table, showed a balance of
$5,052.88 in favour of the Society. The Treasurer
explained that of this sum $3,283.21 had been realized
by the sale of scrip, to raise funds for the new roof of the
museum buildings.
The Calcutta Exhibition.—Mr. Glaisher, secretary to
the Committee of Correspondence, reported to the effeé
that that Committee was of opinion that, as the Society
merely acted as agent of the Government of the
colony in the matter of the Calcutta Exhibition, and
as it was for the interest of the colony that it should
be represented at Calcutta, especially as itis to India
that the colony looks for labour, the whole cost incurred
for the representation of the colony at this exhibition
should be defrayed by the Government from the general
revenue of the colony.
It was ordered that an account of the whole expendi-
ture under this head up to date should be sent to the
Government, with a suggestion that such further arrange-
ments as might seem proper to the Government should
be made as to any further expenditure.
It was also ordered that the surplus copies of the
printed catalogue of exhibits sent from this colony should
be sold, at the price of 1/.
The Cultivation of India-rubber Trees in the Colony.
—Mr, JENMAN reported on the letter of Mr. ROBINSON
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 381
laid before last month’s meeting on this subject as fol-
lows :—
The only action the Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society could
take in this project would be to afford Mr. Robinson any information
that may be in its possession as to the adaptability of land in this colony
for the cultivation of rubber yielding trees, and how it could be acquired
from Government for such a purpose. My papers on the India-rubber
trees of Guiana shew what is known regarding them, and, as well, the
abundance of the land on our rivers adapted to their cultivation. In
addition to these papers, the report published by the Government on
the samples of rubber from the Pomeroon River, and my letter thereon
to the Secretary of the Society would be of service to Mr. Robinson.
The names of members acquainted with the subject might also be com-
municated as requested. The conditions under which land might be
acquired could be obtained from the Crown Lands Department. It
appears to me that this information is nearly all the Society can
give Mr. Robinson, and it is all that he requires to favourably start
his scheme.
It was ordered that a copy of this report should be
sent to Mr. ROBINSON.
Sugar-Cane Mills.—The following notes by the Hon.
WILLIAM RUSSELL were read :—
Since Mr. Mann read his paper on the very important question of
sugar mills and their efficiency under various circumstances, my atten-
tion has been more forcibly drawn to the study of our mills at works
to note both their efficiency and defects.
There can be no doubt that the vertical mill, driven by either wind
or animal power, was the first type of mill used for crushing the
cane, the transmission of power from the vertical shaft of the wind-mil)
being the most simple. Mills of this type are still to be found at work
in Barbados, on small estates, and it will, no doubt, astonish many to
know that these pigmy mills give a higher percentage of juice than can
be extracted with our largest mills ; and this is achieved without grinding
the megass to the consistency of cotton waste, a state which contributes
to the absorption of a very large percentage of the juice while this loose
mass is passing between the back and top rolls.
It may not be out of place for me to explain the mode by which
YY 2
382 TIMEHRI.
canes are passed through these vertical mills. There is first the
labourer who feeds the canes between the primary crushing rolls, which
are set so as to embrace the canes readily. Canes are inserted up and
down the length of the rolls in such a way that by the time the top cane
is inserted the one at the bottom has passed through, giving room for
afresh cane, and in this way the feeder keeps up a steady supply of
canes always, a single cane being in contact with the rolls. A large
stream of juice results from this first operation.
The returner stands on the opposite side; and as the canes are rolled
through, he seizes them and passes them between the next pair of rolls,
which are close set, and the megass is delivered alongside of the cane
feeder ; the cane having in the last roll been deprived of the remainder
of its juice by the simple process of rolling, the megass is simply the
cane flattened without being gvownd into powder. The percentage of
crushing by this simple operation runs as high as 62 to 64 per cent.
and it is self-evident that 'as all the power has been used in rolling
through the canes it must amount to the minimum. ‘The great success
attending this mode of extracting the juice lies in the freedom with
which the juice parts from the cane without any absorption.
The necessity for getting through large quantities of work no doubt
suggested the horizontal 3 roll mills, by which the canes were drawn in
by the top and front rolls, and passed over a dumb returner, to be laid
hold of between the top and back rolls. In the early days of 3 roll mills,
the megass used to pass the last pair of rolls in much the same consis-
tency as was the case with the vertical mills, the whole being handled
by tying into bundles for carriage on the head; little was thought of
the percentage of juice from the cane. A large quantity was got
through, which was the main point aimed at, and the megass when
sun-dried made excellent fuel,—so much so that I can well remember
some old planters refusing to have their mills braced up, because of the
injury to the megass as fuel.
With emancipation, and the necessity of economy in every depart.
ment, and especially with that formidable opponent, beet, gaining ground
in Europe, and the patent fact that from a vegetable containing 5 per
cent. cellulose the manufacturer had succeeded by superior manipulation
in extracting 90 per cent of the juice, much was written as to the
wasteful extravagance of the sugar planters ; and after a time, some of
the most advanced made an attempt to discover what they really were
getting from the sugar cane, I can well remember when 48 to 56 per
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 383
cent. of juice from the weight of the cane was considered good work.
With closer screwing up of mills, the megass became more broken
up, and 58 to 60 per cent. of juice was the result; but then commenced
the real era of breakages. Cheeks, gudgeons, pinions, trash-turners, all
came in for a fair share of breakages. The engineers met all these ac-
cidents by introducing more strength where parts had given way, with.
out turning their attention to the seat of the disease which gave rise to
all these accidents.
The attention of engineers being called to strengthening parts, Mr,
Drury, the chief draughtsman at Vauxhall Foundry, early in the fifties
designed a very ingenious mill, by which all the strains were met by
heavy malleable iron bolts in the direction of the strains. Why this
design was set aside I know not, as I feel certain that, with all the im-
provements made in the designs of mills, there are none that come up
to that of Mr Drury. Rousollet, a French engineer, of considerable co-
lonial experience, who finding the necessity to strap broken cheeks under
various circumstances, set himself to work; and the present mills on his
patent are constructed so as to throw the latter strain entirely on mal-
leable iron bolts. This is a decided step in the right direction, and no
three roiler mills give better results than those of Rousollet’s type; but
while strength is thus giventc thecheeks warranting the users in screwing
up the back rolls metal to metal, there is an inordinate pressure thrown
on the ‘‘trash turner”; to such an extent does this exist, that I have
seen several bars of malleable iron, 9 inches deep by 7 inches in width,
with a set bend given equal to an inch and a half in the length of 6 feet
between supports. Mr. Shields at a previous meeting mentioned a case
in which it indicated a pressure equal to 300 tons to effect such a set.
That this abnormal strain thrown upon the mills is exerted without
adding to the efficiency of the crushing is beyond a doubt, and I un-
hesitatingly assert, that 90 per cent of all mill and gearing accidents are
due to this strain.
Let any one stand by and see a mill working to its maximum power,
and he will see a steady feed of canes being drawn into the jaws of top
and front rolls, probably set an inch apart :—this half-crushed megass
passes, or is drawn ana partly pushed, over the trash turner until it is
embraced between top and back rollers with a set of 3-16th open only;
the megass is delivered on to the elevator like a rough blanket reduced
to a rough powder, seemingly dry, but as we shall see later on this is
only in appearance, This goes on for a time until the material being
384 TIMEHRI,
shoved forward by the feeding rolls is more than the back pair can
deliver, hence a friction brake is created, against which the top roll is
made to rub, until the entire power of the machine is brought up by
such pressure ; meantime, the back roll has ceased to roll through any
megass, the whole mass being held as firmly as a block of wood between
the trash turner and top roll; even the front roll is brought up, there
being no further space into which canes can be pressed.
The mill being now reversed, the gorged mass is quietly ejected
on to the feed-board in a consistency as if operated upon by alarge
crimping machine. This is taking an exaggerated view of the final
bringing up of the machine; but to a limited extent, this abrading
power is going on constantly and so to say, cramming the half crushed
megass so tightly up between trash turner, top roll, and the feed
rolling through, that a large quantity of the juice which might flow
away from the last grip of back roll has no means of escape, and is
forced away with the megass.
The question for engineers to decide is, how to construct a mill so as
to get relief from this unnecessary waste of power, and the fertile
means of break down which the trash turner entails.
My attention was called by Mr. Chapman of Fawcetts to the advisa-
bility of using a two roll mill as the second mill connected with macera-
tion. I did not see the force of his advice at the time, wedded as I was
to the three roll mill; but I have seen cause to change my mind since,
and I believe the finishing mill of the future will be either an ordinary
two roll mill or a De Morney mill, in which, when the final grip is given to
the megass, there isa clear space for the juice to fallaway, whilethe me~
gass is delivered in an almost perpendicular direction, as was shown in
this room by the toy two-roll mill which I use for laboratory pur-poses,
I regret exceedingly the cause of the absence of my much respected
and valued friend Mr. Mann at this time, because I could wish to
thank him in person for stirring me up to make further experiments
in this all-important subject, and I now trust that others better qualified
will give the subject their attention.
A vote of thanks to the President for the above inter-
esting paper was passed.
A Cacao-pest—Mr. Mewburn Garnett stated that Mr.
Bosh Reitz, a proprietor in Surinam, had asked him to
lay before the meeting specimens of two kinds of beetles
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 385
which were destroying the cacao trees. In Surinam the
greatest amount of destruction is caused by these inseéts,
which seem to enter the outer bark of the tree, making
holes the size of a pea, and there depositing eggs. The
hole is then closed up with a fine dust which the inseét ga-
thers from the outer bark of the tree, and then the top is
covered with glutinous matter, to prevent ants from at-
tacking the young. Mr. Nelson, manager of a cacao
estate on the Demerara River, reported that he had seen
the inseéts on that river.
The Curator of the Museum said that the insects be-
longed to the numerous class of woodborers. He, himself,
could not at present give any advice as to how they could
exterminate these insets, except that each branch
should be carefully examined and the eggs taken out. He
thought that Mr. Bates might be able and willing to
name them, aman who had been on the banks of the
Amazon for nearly 11 years, and added that he would
gladly senda specimen to Mr. Bates.
Mr. Shields thought that if a lantern were carried
about the trees at night, the light would attraét the in-
seéts. He had succeeded on several occasions in catch-
ing them in that way.
The Tamil MS. in the Museum.—The Rev. R. H. Moor
reported upon the old Tamil manuscript sent to him by
the Society to ascertain its value. He said it was an in-
teresting series of love tales, which probably are already
translated into English, but which, in its manuscript form,
would interest the many East Indian visitors to the
Museum.
The meeting then separated.
cieminnient racemes
ZZ
386 TIMEHRI.
Meeting held 8th November.—Mr. G. L. Davyson in
the chair.
There were 8 members present.
Eleétions— Members: Thomas Grogin; C. A. Mat-
they ; J. Andrews; J. Russell.
Associate: A. Long.
Cane-mills.—W ith reference to the notes by the Hon.
W. Russell on this subjeét read at the previous meeting,
Mr. Shields read the following :—
If anything could be added to what Mr. Russell has laid before us, to
show the importance of good cane-crushing it might be done by calling
attention to the actual loss in dollars which this colony sustains by im-
perfect crushing.
The total produce of sugar in the colony may be taken in round
numbers at 130,000 tons per annum. And JI think it would be a fair
estimate to assume that the juice expressed, taking the mills collectively
throughout the colony, equals 62 per cent of the weight of canes; but as
we would rather be over than under the mark, let us assume that 63 per
cent is obtained.
The difference between this and what might be obtained may be
fairly considered as the loss which the planters sustain through imper-
fect crushing. But, as it is stillan open question how much juice may
be profitably expressed by crushing, we will take a low figure, and
assume that 70 per cent. only could be expressed. The difference then be-
tween 63 and 70 may fairly be taken as the loss in cane juice; and by
turning this into figures I find that it represents a loss of 111 on every
1,000 tons, and that on the whole colony crop of 130,000 it represents a
loss of no less than 14,430 tons of sugar. If we estimate this with its
offal at $120 per ton, it presents us with the large sum of $1,731,600 as
the amount which we are carelessly throwing away; and after allowing
one-third of this sum for the extra cost of manufacture, we have still
more than $1,000,000 of actual loss due to imperfect crushing.
The most important question in connection with this important sub«
fect is, I think, the practical one, how to arrest thisimmense waste. I
am sorry that inthe paper before us no hint is given how this is to be
done,
We ate promised further experiments in connection with this question;
\
REPORT OF SOCIETY'S MEETINGS. 387
and itis to be hoped that further experiments will throw more light on
the subject; but we, as practical men, should not forget that while
we are waiting and experimenting, more than a million dollars are slip-
ping through our fingers every year. The question for each of us should
be, what are we to do with the mills we have got, and how are we to
make the most of them.
And second, what is to be the mill of the future.
Mr. Russell treats us to a very graphic account of the working of the
old vertical mill, and its change into one of the horizontal type, with its
accompanying evil the trash-turner, which he believes to be the root of
all evil; but he does not give us a hint how this is to be put right. Now I
admit at once that the trash-turner is at best but a necessary evil ; but as
long asit is necessary, it is our duty as practical men to try to reduce
that evil to aminimum. Certainly screwing up the back roll, metal
to metal, is not the way to accomplish this result; indeed I am sur-
prised that a practical man like Mr. Russell should use this expression,
far less tolerate the practice, let the mill be ever so strong. What does
it mean ? Does it mean that two teet thickness of canes on the feed-board
is to be annihilated before passing between the back rolls. If
not that, then it must mean that the mill is to be twisted and dis-
torted to an enormous extent to allow that thickness of canes to pass
through; and one or other, or the whole, of the evils complained of must
of necessity take place. But if the mill is properly set and judiciously
worked, good crushing will be obtained and the evils complained of if
not entirely eliminated, will be reduced to a minimum.
From my own experience and observations, extending over the last
three years, I find the best results are obtained when an opening of one
quarter of an inch is allowed between the front rolls for every six cane
throwers. The back roll should be screwed up until the engine is just
able to drive through the average feed with the average steam pressure.
If this rule is adhered to, the best results will be obtained that it is poss-
ible for the engine to give; for, after all, the actual power of the mill to
express juice is limited by the mechanical energy or power which the
engine is capable of developing ; and, as far as my experience goes, this
is in almost every case very much too small.
Take up the catalogue of any maker of sugar mills you choose, for they
follow one another like a drove of sheep, and you will find that the
engines classed along with the mill are invariably much too small ; eg.
a 32” x 72" mill is expected to be driven by a 20” x 48” cylinder. Now
ZZ
388 TIMEHRI.
we know from experience that this is very much too small and, as
usually geared, is not capable of expressing more than 62-63 per cent
of the weight of the canes, while expressing 1800 galls. of juice per hour,
with a boiler pressure of 60 lbs. per 0”.
With a 26” cylinder engine, other things being equal, 66-68 per cent
of the weight of the canes might be obtained, which on a crop of 1,006
hhds. would increase the output by 80 hhds. of sugar, or, in money
value, of nearly 10,000 dollars. ‘This increase in the crop could be
obtained in many instances, I have no doubt, simply by increasing the
power of the engine and running a very little extra risk in the matter
of breakages.
I know that the makers of our sugar mills think that they have the
power nicely adjusted to the work to be done, and that to increase the
size of the engine would be to introduce the elements of destruction into
the system. This may be theory, but here again experience comes to
our aid and teaches us that as a rule it is the mills most deficient in en-
gine power that give out most, and that breakages very seldom occur
through the engine being too powerful, but because it is too weak to
drive the feed of canes through the mill. Backing is then resorted too
‘and a breakage occurs, through a spasmodic effort being made to over-
come its own weakness. If the engine had been sufficiently powerful
to drive through the feed of canes in the first instance backing would
Fave been unnecessary, the risk of breakages reduced, and much better
crushing obtained.
Mr. Russell recommends a two roller mill for second crushing, and I
find on looking back over my correspondence that in a letter dated 4th
November, 1880, I have recommended an exactly similar arrangement ;
‘ and if double squeezing is necessary I am still at one with Mr. Russell
as to the value of a mill of this description, Further experience however
as to the possibility of obtaining really good results from single crushing
has convinced me that second crushing is unnecessary, and that a good
mill fitted with hydraulic adjustment and backed up by asufficiently pow-
erful engine will at one operation extract all the available juice from
the cane.
Another important question of this subject, and Mr. Russell has left
it altogether untouched, is the bearing that it has on the question of
burning megass direct from the mill; for, notwithstanding the enthusi«
asm of furnace patentees as to the value of their inventions, and the
puffs of newspaper editors and correspondents, I hold that the question
REPORT OF SocIETY’S MEETINGS. 389
of burning wet megass economically has not yet been solved, and if it is
to be solved the solution must be looked for from the millrather than
from the furnace. Given a mill that will express 75 per cent of the
weight of the canes, in juice, and the question of burning the megass
direct is solved independently of the furnace ; whereas with the ordinary
type of mill as it exists all over this colony, expressing only 60-63 per
cent of the weight of the canes in juice, xo furnace yet invented will
burn the megass to advantage. It may be burnt certainly, but it would
be just about as economical to burn it in a heap in the yard asin any
furnace that has been brought to our notice.
Mr. Russell said they were all indebted to Mr.
Shields for the very valuable and practical paper
which he hadread. Mr. Shields had very properly taken
him to task on one or two points. While he used the
local expression of metal to metal of course he did not
mean absolutely that the surfaces were touching; there is
always a considerable give in parts even when the rollers
appear touching when screwed up. He quite agreed
with Mr. Shields that under certain conditions the trash
turner was not such an evil as many made it out to be.
He held in his hand a return of the results of some mills,
which he had intended to embrace in another paper ; but
it might be just as well to refer to them now, to show
what was being done. ‘Take, in the first instance, Dia-
mond, with a single-crushing mill with respeét to which
everyone who saw it allowed that the work done was
superior to anything in single-crushing anywhere else in
the colony. There was 13.48 fibre in the canes put
through. It was an important element, the fibre of the
canes they had to deal with, because some canes had
only io per cent of woody fibre. The experiments had
been made by Mr. Alexander, the analyst at Tuschen,
and the results had been taken very correétly. With
ZZ 2
390 TIMEHRI.
canes of 13.48 per cent fibre, at the Diamond, the ex-
pression was 66.98, or nearly 67 per cent. Coming down
to Providence, where they had immensely powerful
double-crushing machinery, the canes contained only
11.40 per cent of fibre, and the expression of juice was
77.07. At Uztvlugt, where they had a very fine, power-
ful second mill, the first one being more like a defibreur,
opening up its canes for the steam to play upon them,
and where they had canes witha fibre of 12.80 per cent, the
expression fell downto68.75 percent. At Providencethey
were working. very powerful double machines, with which
they were satisfied to make 100 hhds.a week. At Uztvlugt,
with a less powerful plant, they were trying to make alittle
more, and consequently they were putting more canes
through, in proportion than at Providence, and with so
much worse results. At Zuschen de Vrienden, witha
small mill running at a terrific speed, 25 feet per minute,
and 13.10 per cent woody fibre in the canes, they got
62.56 per cent expression, or, by single-crushing exactly
what Mr. Shields had taken as the average of the colony.
In fact he (Mr. Russell) had often taken Zuschen de
Vrienden as a co-efficient for the whole colony,
as an average, and his results in this case came very
near Mr. Shields’ average of 63 per cent, or 62 per cent.
which he considered the ordinary average. At Leonora
they had two single mills breaking the canes, which
were passed through a third mill. The canes contained
11 per cent of fiore, and the expression was 74 per cent
of cane juice. Mr. Russell went on to say that without
a powerful engine and gearing to transmit the motion
to the rollers they could not expect to get through
a large quantity of work. As Mr, Shields had said, the
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 301
power of the machinery depended entirely upon the
engine power. He held that at Providence, with double
mills 72 x 32 making a too hhds. a week, they could en-
sure perfect crushing, and there was no question about the
burning of the megass, which was fit to burn in
almost any furnace. He did not enter into the question
about the burning of megass in his paper, the latter being
more to draw out discussion than to finish it. He wanted
to have an opportunity of picking other people’s brains,
and to reply afterwards. Just now, however, he had
the pleasure of complimenting Mr. Shields upon the
very excellent paper he had read that day. He (Mr.
Russsell) should be prepared to read a paper at the next
meeting on ‘The sugar cane as fuel” (Hear, hear), and
he would then go into the whole question. Patentees
of furnace feeders would then have an opportunity of
publicly combating the question instead of taking up the
time of the newspaper compositors in setting up long-
winded articles which amount to nothing.
Mr. Shields hoped Mr. Russell would do this, and he
would also do a great service if he embodied in his paper
the statistics which he had just laid before the meeting ;
these statistics were most important. If Mr. Russell
would allow him to offer a suggestion, he would like the
statistics to include the size of the cylinders to compare
with the power of the mills. In almost every case the
cylinders were too small to drive the mill, and they would
get better results by increasing the size of the cylinders.
This would not, he thought, increase the risk of breakages,
in almost any degree whatever. It was when “ backing ”’
that the breakages take place; and when the cylinder
was large enough to drive through anything there was
392 TIMEHRI.
little danger. He thought it was important that planters
should consider whether it was not possible, by in-
creasing the size of the cylinders, to increase the per-
centage of juice obtained by two or three per cent.
Mr. Russell said he would have great pleasure in giving,
in his next paper, the pressure of steam, the size of the
cylinders, the proportion of gearing, and the size of the
mills—in fact information upon every part of this ques-
tion, which was one in which he was deeply interested.
He came before the Society with his paper to gain infor-
mation, and so far as his specialists and himself could
investigate the question he should give every information
which lay in his power.
The Calcutta Exhibition—The Acting Secretary
stated that, according to instructions, he had written to
the Government Secretary with reference to the expenses
yet to be paid in conneétion with this Exhibition, and
that he was informed that the Government had made all
necessary arrangement with Mr. Kirke, the Commissioner
at Calcutta for the British Guiana Exhibition.
The meeting then dispersed.
Meeting held 13th December.—The Honourable W.
Russell, President, in the chair.
There were 16 members present.
The late William Hunter Campbell, L.L.D.,—The
President said :—‘‘ Gentlemen,—Before proceeding with
the order of the day, I wish to refer to the melancholy
intelligence, which has reached us since our last
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 393
meeting, of the death of our late Secretary, Mr. W. H.
Campbell, LL.D. I am sure ail will agree with me that
in the death of Mr. Campbell the colony has lost one of
its most useful citizens; and this Society in particular
has to lament the loss of one who might be justly styled
the father of the Society ; for I have no hesitation in as-
serting that but for the untiring zeal of our late Secre-
tary, at times when he was almost left alone to battle
against lukewarmness, the Society must have come to
grief. All who came in contact with Mr. Campbell in
ordinary business could not but be struck with the gen-
tlemanly, quiet, and sound way in which he conducted
his extensive legal practice; the wonder being how he
grasped and got through so much. ‘Those who met him
in his capacity as an honorary member of almost every
Committee connected with the advancement and the
material welfare of the colony in general, and of scienti-
fic research in particular, could not but feel that when
the day came for Mr. Campbell to cease his busy and
useful life it would be a misfortune. That day has un-
fortunately arrived sooner than could have been expected;
for until the day he left these shores he punctually at-
tended our meetings, and! am certain none of us who saw
him present at the meeting held on the 14th of June last
imagined that it was for the last time. It has been usual
in all times for Societies like our own to mark the appre-
ciation of such untiring zeal as characterized the services
of him whose loss we have now to mourn. The late Dr.
Blair, whose bust graces our rooms, was in his time a
warm supporter of the Society; and that bust hands
down to posterity how much Dr. Blair was valued by
those with whom he came in contact in his day. I
304 TIMEHRI.
have in like manner now to propose that a resolution be
placed on the minutes recording our unanimous feeling
of regret at the loss of one who held for the long term of
39 years the honorary, onerous office of Secretary to this
Society, and that abustor portrait be procured and placed
in our rooms, with a tablet; that the name of William
Hunter Campbell may be prominently handed down to
posterity as one to whom the Society owes it very
existence.—“ Be it resolved, that this Society in record-
ing the melancholy intelligence of the demise of our late
honorary Secretary—Dr. William Hunter Campbell,
L.L.D., testifies to the untiring zeal with which he con-
ducted the onerous duties for the space of 39 years,
thereby encouraging others to follow his example, and
that it is due to the fostering care of the Secretary that
this Society can now boast of a roll of over 400 members,
with a library and a Museum that colonists can point to
with pride and satisfaction ; and that, with a view to more
prominently testifying our value of his service, a bust
or portrait with a suitable record of such service be
placed in a niche of these rooms.”’
The motion was seconded by Mr. Fleming and was
unanimously approved. At the suggestion of the Presi-
dent it was also agreed that a copy of this resolution
should be forwarded to the widow of the late Mr: Camp-
bell, with an expression of the sincere sympathy of the
members of the Society in her bereavement.
Mr. William Walker, the resident director of the So-
ciety in London, in a letter expressed his confidence of
the deep concern of the members of the Society general-
ly in the announcement of the death of their much
valued honorary Secretary, whose protracted connection
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 395
with the Society, not less than his many estimable quali-
ties, must have endeared him to all and must make his
loss deeply and permanently felt.
A letter from Mr. Charles Crumpton, the assistant
Secretary of the Society expressing his sincere sorrow
for the death of Mr. Campbell was also read.
The Edinburgh Forestry Exhibition.—The President
stated that the members of the Society were doubtless
aware that a communication from the Secretary of State
for the Colonies had reached this colony suggesting that
British Guiana should be represented at the Forestry Ex-
hibition to be held in Edinburgh in the winter of 1884. The
President added that he had brought to the notice of his
Excellency the Governor that a local Exhibition would
be held here next year and that this would afford an ex-
cellent opportunity to gather a collection to be forward-
ed to the Edinburgh Exhibition. It had been decided
by the government to communicate with this Society as
to the arrangements to be made to secure adequate rep-
resentation at Edinburgh.
Elections of Office-bearers for 1884.—The following
were elected :—
Patroness:
Pee Ow EaGN:.
Viee-Patron:
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR HENRY TURNER IRVING, K.C.M.G.
GOVERNOR AND COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, &c., &c., &c.
President :
Hon. B. HOWELL JONES.
Vice-President:
Hon, ARTHUR BRAUD,
396
TIMEHRI.
Managing Directors:
G. L. DAVSON
M. GARNETT
E. H. G. DALTON.
Ordinary Directors:
Hon. WILLIAM RUSSELL
His Honor J. HAMPDEN KING, Bea.
R. J. KELLY
Hon. THOMAS MULLIGAN
B. J. GODFREY
G. H. HAWTAYNE.
Exehange Room Ditrectors :
JOHN J. DARE
ARTHUR WEBER
EDWARD STEPHENS.
Treasurer:
ROBERT WIGHT IMLACH.
Secretary.
F. A. CONYERS.
Agricultural Committee:
Hon, WILLIAM RUSSELL, Chairman.
A. J. PITMAN, Vice-Chairman.
R. T. A. DALY, Hon. Secretary.
W. S. ARNOLD
C. L. BASCOM
S. M. BELLAIRS.
Hon. ARTHUR BRAUD
D. C. CAMERON
WILLIAM CRAIGEN
M. GARNETT
A. R. GILZEAN
T. H. GLENNIE
R. W. IMLACH
How. B. HOWELL JONES
R. J. KELLY
HY. KIRKE, m.a.
A. C. McCALMAN
E. A. MANGET, m.p.
JOHN MENZIES
JOHN MINTY
Hon. THOS. MULLIGAN
P. H. NIND
G. R. SANDBACH, mM. a,
HENRY T. STOKES
W. A. WOLSELEY,
REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 397
Committee of Correspondence:
Hon. WILLIAM RUSSELL, Chairman.
His Hon. J. H. KING, B. a., Vice-Chairman
R. W. IMLACH, Treasurer.
EVERARD F.1m THURN, m.a., Secretary.
N. ATKINSON JOHN S. HILL
Rev. W. G. G. AUSTIN, m. a. G. S. JENMAN
Reale DAILY 1S Wo USIRILIUNG
E. H. G. DALTON HENRY KIRKE, m. a.
E. E. H. FRANCIS GEORGE LITTLE, Jr.
WILLIAM FRESSON A. C. McCALMAN
C. H. GILBERT P. H. NIND
qT. H. GLENNIE Hon. W. F. H. SMITH
B. J. GODFREY Hon. W. A. G. YOUNG, c. Ma.
G. H. HAWTAYNE
Curator of Museum: E. H. GLASHIER, s. a.
Book Committee: |
N. ATKINSON JOHN S. HILL
Rev. W. G. G. AUSTIN, m.a. R. W. IMLACH
A. G. M. CAMERON, m.p. His Hon. J. H. KING, B. a.
His Hon. Str D. P. CHALMERS HENRY KIRKE, m. A.
F. A. CONYERS Rev. T. J. MOULDER
N. DARNELL DAVIS P. H. NIND
E. H. G. DALTON W. H. SHERLOCK
Cc. H. GILBERT EXLEY PERCIVAL, B. A.
E. H. GLAISHER, B. a. F. A. R. WINTER
T. H. GLENNIE Ven. ArcHpn. WYATT
B. J. GODFREY Hon. W. A. G. YOUNG, ¢. M. G.
G. H. HAWTAYNE
Librarian: CHARLES CRUMPTON.
Resident Director in London:
WILLIAM WALKER, 48 Hilldrop Road, Tufnell Park, N.
Agents in London :
Messts. RIDGWAY & SONS, 2 Waterloo, Place, S. W.
Attendance at Committees:.—Some conversation took
place on the subject of the customary lax attendance of
308 TIMEHRI,
members at committee meetings, and a desire was ex-
pressed that attendance might be more regular in future.
Tne President’s paper on Sugar-Cane Mills.—The
reading of the promised supplementary paper on this
subject by the President was deferred, on account of the
pressure of the business, to the January meeting ; but it
was arranged that the paper should at once be printed,
in order that members might come to the next meeting
prepared to discuss its suggestions.
Donations.—The following donations presented to the
Society were announced :—
History of The Duchess of Cerifalco, by BENJAMIN Murray.—By
W. Yellery, Esq.
Picture entitled ‘Fact and Fancy.’—By R. W. Imlach, Esq.
The meeting then dispersed.
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES
iii
93 57