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QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY
NEW YORK
THE J. K. GILL COMPANY
PORTLAND, OREGON
THE CUNNINGHAM, CURTISS & WELCH COMPANY
LOS ANGELES
THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON AND EDINBURGH
THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA
TOKYO, OSAKA, KYOTO, FUKUOKA, SENDAI
THE MISSION BOOK COMPANY
SHANGHAI
QUESTIONS ON
SHAKESPEARE
Part I
INTRODUCTORY
BY
ALBERT H. TOLMAN
Professor of English Literature
The University of Chicago
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
Copyright igio By
The University of Chicago
All Rights Reserved
Published July 1910
Second Impression March 191&
Composed and Printed By
The University of Chicago Press
Chicago. Illinois, U.S.A.
TO
MY CHUM AT JOHNS HOPKINS
CHARLES BAKER WRIGHT
PREFACE
The purpose of the present work is fully ex-
plained in the Introduction.
, The writer wishes to express his great indebted-
ness to his friend Mrs. Ella Adams Moore for
advice and criticism in the preparation of Parts I
and II. Her interest could hardly have been
greater if the books had been her own.
Professor I. N. Demmon of the University of
Michigan, Professor C. G. Dunlap of the Uni-
versity of Kansas, Professor J. M. Manly and Mr.
D. A. Robertson of the University of Chicago, and
Librarian W. N. C. Carlton and Miss Durkee of
the Newberry Library, Chicago, have given valu-
able assistance in connection with the Bibliography.
It is a cause for regret that the final work upon the
Bibliography could not be done in the Shakespeare
Library of the University of Michigan. Through
the kind mediation of Professor Demmon, the
writer has at various times received help from that
valuable collection. Advanced students of Shake-
speare may well make pilgrimages thereto.
A. H. T.
Vll
CONTENTS
PAGE
Introduction i
The Study of Shakespeare's Language . 25
Introduction 27
I Nouns 32
1. Coined nouns 32
2. Adjective form as abstract noun . 32
3. Adjective form as substantive to
denote single person .... 32
4. Abstract noun with concrete
meaning 33
5. Abstract noun in the plural . . 33
II. The Pronouns 33
1. Object of preposition in nomina-
tive 36
2. Object of verb in nominative . 36
3. Irregular appositional use ... 37
4. Doubling of pronoun .... 37
5. Logical subject in nominative . 37
6. Subject of infinitive in nominative 38
7. His=its 38
8. Peculiar uses of possessive . . 39
9. Dative uses. Ethical dative . . 39
to. It is I, etc 40
11. Fare thee well, etc 40
12. The force of thou 41
13. It as indefinite object .... 42
ix
CONTENTS
14. The reinforced substantive
15. The reinforced relative pronoun
Two-faced words
W ho = whom
= IV, § 1 ...... .
Attraction by a relative
Omission of relative or of ante-
cedent
Implied antecedent ....
Which with clause for antecedent
Who impersonal, which personal
Pronoun separated from ante-
cedent
Adverbial use of what
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21
22
23
24
25
III Verbs (see also under IV)
1. Coined verbs
2. The subjunctive mood
3. Omission of verb of motion
4. Impersonal verbs .
5. Double object, person and clause
6. Strong preterite and participle
alike
7. Omission of -en or -n of strong
participle
8. Omission of -ed or -/ of weak par-
ticiple
9. Participles with irregular force
10. Presence or absence of to in infini-
tive
PACE
43
44
44
45
46
46
46
47
47
47
48
48
48
48
49
5o
5o
5o
51
5i
52
52
53
CONTENTS XI
PAGE
ii. The force of the infinitive with to 53
12. Infinitive with force of finite verb.
See II, § 6 54
13. The use of be in the indicative 54
14. Be as auxiliary with verbs of
motion, etc 54
15. Negative sentences without do,
does 54
IV. The Agreement of Verb and Subject . 55
1. Agreement with relative pronoun
as subject 55
2. Here is, etc., with plural subject 56
3. Compound subject with singular
members •. 56
4. Plural subject with is, was, or
present-indicative in -s 56
5. Plural subject with doth or hath . 59
6. Plural subject with present indica-
tive in -en or -n 59
7. Second singular of present indica-
tive in -es or -5 60
8. Attraction 61
V. Adjectives and Adverbs .... 61
1. Coined adjectives 61
2. Double comparative or superlative 62
3. One ending of comparison for
different adjectives .... 62
4. The transferred epithet ... 62
xii CONTENTS
PAGE
5. Loose use of adjectives ... 63
6. Double accentuation .... 64
7. The voice of adjectives ... 65
8. Adjectives in -ed. See under III,
§ 9 65
9. Adjectives used as nouns. See
under I, §§ 1, 2 65
10. Correlative words 65
11. Adjective form as adverb . . 66
12. One adverbial ending for different
words 67
13. Double negative 67
14. Concealed double negative . . 67
VI. Conjunctions and Prepositions . . 68
1. Each simple conjunction had
broader meaning than now . . 68
2. Conjunctions followed by that . 69
3. That may continue previous con-
junction 70
4. And meaning if 70
5. Each simple preposition had
broader meaning than now . . 70
6. Doubling of the preposition . . 72
VII. Peculiar Constructions. Ellipsis.
Word-Order 72
1. Mixture of constructions ... 72
2. Respective constructions ... 74
3. Anticipation 75
CONTENTS
Xlll
4. Double object, person plus a
clause =111, § 5
5. Ellipsis
6. Word-order
7. Pronoun separated from ante-
cedent = 11, § 24
VIII. Etymology. Word-Formation. Changes
of Meaning
1. Words in Latin meaning .
2. Suffix with irregular force .
3. Words with better meaning than
now
4. Words with worse meaning than
now
5. Other changes of meaning
IX. A Few Topics That Involve Subject-
Matter
1. Elizabethan coloring .
2. Former theories and beliefs
3. Legal and musical terms .
4. Outdoor sport ....
5. Description of nature .
6. Fabulous natural history .
The Study of Shakespeare's Verse
The nature of verse
The typical line
Shifting of the stress ....
PAGE
76
76
78
78
79
79
79
80
80
81
82
82
83
84
84
85
87
89
89
90
Xiv CONTENTS
PAGE
Degrees of stress. Measures with no
stress 91
Measures with two stresses .... 92
Measures of three syllables .... 92
Measures apparently of one syllable . . 93
"End-stopt" lines. Run-on lines ... 94
Double endings 95
Extra mid-syllables 96
"Mid-stopt" speeches 96
Alexandrines 96
Short lines 96
Words pronounced in two ways ... 97
Doubtful cases 98
Rhyme 98
The changes in Shakespeare's verse . . 98
Light and weak endings 99
Statistical table 10 1
Select General Bibliography ... 103
I. Bibliographical Helps .... 106
II. Quartos and Folios. Modern Repro-
ductions 109
III. Modern Editions 118
IV. Commentaries. Histories of the
Drama. General Works ... 126
V. Shakespeare's Life. Shakespeare
the Man. His Relation to His Age.
The History of His Reputation . 137
VI. The Language, Grammar, and Style
of Shakespeare 143
CONTENTS XV
PAGE
VII. Shakespeare's Verse. The Chrono-
logical Order of the Plays. The
Variation between Verse and Prose 149
VIII. Shakespeare's Text. The History
of the Text 160
IX. Shakespeare's Sources. Literary
Influences Affecting Him . . . 166
X. Shakespeare's London. The Eliza-
bethan Theater and Stage. Modern
Adaptations. Controversies. The
Private Stages 172
XL The Doubtful Plays 180
XII. Dramatic Technique 182
XIII. The Histories 187
XIV. Stratford-on-Avon and Vicinity.
Shakespeare's Family .... 189
XV Special Works. The History and
Social Life of the Period. Mis-
cellaneous 191
Index (not including Bibliography) . 201
Index to Bibliography 208
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INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
There are very many reasonable ways in which
the exercises in Part II of the present work can be
used;
And every single use of them is right.
The teacher who looks through some of the ques-
tions in order to get suggestions for exercises of
his own framing, the private reader who notes
them in order that he may read a particular play
more intelligently — these make just as legitimate
a use of the book, and one just as much intended
by the author, as does the systematic student who
writes out formal answers to most of the questions
upon some play or group of plays.
No one can rightly criticize a teacher for using
with a class any questions from this work that
he considers suitable. It is supremely important
that the topics assigned to pupils shall be interesting
and profitable; it is not at all important where
they come from. I believe that the pupil has a
right to have his work in English assigned in a way
that is both clear and helpful. He should know
when he has accomplished the assigned task, the
work for which on the particular occasion he is to
be held responsible. There is no proper time in
any classroom for haphazard questioning. To ask
3
iirrii«fiiM>fniii
4 QUESTIONS OX SHAKESPEARE
the pupil simply to "take" ten pages, or twenty
pages, of a play, seems hardly a wise procedure.
Where shall he take them ?
Some teachers may think best to have the pupils
themselves select some of the questions that are
to receive special attention. Although an ordinary
class can use but a few of the exercises upon a play,
it would help the members to glance at most of
them. Questions that are not formally assigned
may be useful as a stimulus to thought, and may
save the pupils from false and one-sided concep-
tions. It is well, too, that young people should
realize that their study of a play has been only
partial and superficial.
The main portion of the pupil's study should be
expended upon questions that are literary in their
nature. He should not devote his chief strength
to topics concerning which Shakespeare himself
cared little or nothing.
The prime necessity in the study of Shakespeare
is that the pupil's self-activity shall be called forth.
The poetry, the humor, the pathos, the abounding
diversified life of the plays must be directly appro-
priated by each individual reader. He must
grapple with Shakespeare for himself. With
each new drama "a new planet swims into his
ken." It is not desirable that the results of some
other man's reading and thinking shall be poured
■™™«™" ~*nnmnnn
INTRODUCTION 5
out upon him in lectures. The true test, however,
is that of results. A lecture may be profitable;
but it will be most profitable when it is made to
have some direct connection with the pupil's own
reading and reflection.
The author hopes that this work will be of
service to many private students of Shakespeare,
indeed to many who would call themselves only
readers. The isolated reader needs to be kept
from a careless or mechanical perusal of the text.
The questions here raised ought to stimulate such
an one, and to enlarge the scope of his interest.
It was my intention at one time to put at the
beginning of this book a discussion of various
topics for dramatic study. On some future occa-
sion I may write such a paper. But I was afraid
that I should impose my ideas upon those who use
the book rather than stimulate and draw out their
own.
I have tried to make the exercises clear and self-
explanatory, and not to use a jargon of my own.
Though forced to employ a few terms in a some-
what technical way, I have chosen for the purpose
words that are as luminous as possible, and when-
ever it seemed necessary, I have carefully explained
at some place in the book the meaning which I
attach to each term. Through the index to each
Part these explanations can be consulted at will.
6 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Five different kinds of exercises on each play
are here presented, as follows: (i) general ques-
tions, (2) questions on individual acts and scenes,
(3) character-study, (4) the relation of the play to
its sources, (5) questions concerning text or mean-
ing. It has not seemed best to try to keep these
divisions entirely apart. Thus, questions that per-
tain to the great interest of character-study are
often given under the individual scenes. Again,
while the difficulties that concern the text and the
language of Shakespeare are left for the most part
to be taken up for each play under that specific
head, certain topics of this kind are considered
in the questions upon the individual scenes. In
this way certain more important textual questions
will probably be brought to the notice of some who
will pay little attention to the detailed study of
the language.
The general questions on each play are somewhat
difficult. They put the student upon his own
resources, and ask him to handle the play as a
master-interpreter. Instead of using the criticisms
of others, he is to write a criticism of his own. One
such topic may demand much time before it can
be discussed with fulness and insight. These
questions are not for babes; and even a class that
is fitted to handle them will not be able to take up
many of the general exercises with any fulness.
INTRODUCTION 7
Nevertheless, so far as pupils are ready for them,
these general questions, and the study and inter-
pretation of the important characters, are the
topics which seem to me to have the most value.
The pupil is given "the freedom of the city";
and the tasks that are assigned him can be made
highly educative.
The study of Shakespeare's versification as
such has not been taken up in the questions upon
the earlier plays. The purpose is to consider this
topic in connection with later plays, and then to
make the development of the poet's verse the sub-
ject of comprehensive study and interpretation.
However, by making use of the detailed descrip-
tion of Shakespeare's versification given in Part I,
this subject can be taken up whenever the teacher
desires. Some attention has been paid, even in
the study of the earlier plays, to Shakespeare's
increasing use of prose, and to the principles gov-
erning the variation between prose and blank verse.
The paper upon Shakespeare's language makes
no attempt to treat that subject with fulness.
The purpose is to bring out the main differences
between the language of Shakespeare and that of
today. This outline, it is hoped, will give the
pupil some helpful information, and will stimulate
him to make similar comparisons for himself.
The bibliography is select. Especially in the
8 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
general divisions, many available books have not
been named. It is hoped that the more important
works are given.
In writing this book I have made constant use
of three complete editions of the text of Shake-
speare: the second edition of The Cambridge
Shakespeare, The Eversley Shakespeare of Herford,
and the one-volume edition of Neil son (see under
III in Bibliography). The last two have the
standard line-numbers of the Globe edition. The
text constantly before my eyes has been that of
Herford.
While working out the questions, I have made
little use of Mr. W. H. Fleming's four volumes
entitled How to Study Shakespeare (Doubleday,
N.Y.), or of the excellent " study programmes"
by Miss Porter and Miss Clarke (in the volumes
of Poet-Lore, Boston. See under XV in Bibliog-
raphy). Inasmuch, however, as I had previously
consulted these sources in order to get topics for
my classes, I may well owe more to these predeces-
sors than I realize. Of the eight plays taken up
in Part II, three have been treated by Mr. Fleming,
and two by Miss Porter and Miss Clarke.
Trom the commentators and critics I have taken
suggestions with the utmost freedom. Especial
help in working out my questions has come to
me from the Boswcll-Malone Variorum Shake-
INTRODUCTION Q
speare of 1 82 1 , from some volumes of the incomplete
Arden edition (Heath), from Rolfe's old edition,
from the admirable First Folio edition of Miss
Porter and Miss Clarke (Crowell), now approach-
ing completion, and from the volumes of The
New Variorum edition (Lippincott) of Dr. Horace
Howard Furness, the honored teacher of us all.1
I have not hesitated to ask the student to express
his judgment upon the quality of Shakespeare's
work. Of course he should consider well before
making any disapproving comment; and if he
does make it, he should have a clear appreciation
of the fact that fuller knowledge and reflection
may modify or even reverse his unfavorable opinion.
When Shakespeare seems to be in fault, the student
must bear in mind that the exact purpose of the
dramatist may not have been apprehended. Again,
the modern reader may easily fail to appreciate
the accepted conventions and limitations of the
Elizabethan stage, and therefore of Elizabethan
play-writing. One must note, too, that dramatic
economy often forces even the most careful drama-
tist to indulge in a kind of foreshortening, a
hurrying forward of the action, which at times
crowds out some of the preparation that would
make the progress of events seem more easy and
natural. Shakespeare's fondness for love at first
1 See under III of Bibliography.
IO QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
sight — his men fairly tumble in love — is probably
due in part to the dramatic economy of this
expedient.
Once more, we should note that some feature
of a play which can fairly be called objectionable
may be an almost necessary incident in accomplish-
ing some larger purpose. Thus, Horatio's speech
in Hamlet I. i. 79-107 is somewhat forced. It is
not likely that Bernardo and Marcellus are so
ignorant of an important episode in the recent
history of their own country that they need to have
it recited in such detail. But by means of this
speech Shakespeare manages to bring into his
play the exposition that is needed; and the strain-
ing of probability is scarcely noticed.
It is clear, too, that Shakespeare was very much
hampered in composing his English historical
plays by the necessity of conforming to what were
accepted as the facts of history. Previous drama-
tizations furnished in some cases an outline which
he felt called upon to follow. These plays of the
master-dramatist must be judged, not as pure
drama, but as applied drama, since in writing
them he was only in part a free agent.
But, after all proper precautions have been taken,
the pupil must form and express judgments con-
cerning Shakespeare's work, if he is to study the
dramatist at all. The most appreciative students
INTRODUCTION n
of the poet have felt free to call attention to his
occasional shortcomings. Professor Dowden says
of Richard II, V. iii. 119 (" Speak it in French,
King; say, Tardonne moi' "): "This execrable
line would never have been admitted by the mature
Shakespeare."1 Concerning a portion of the same
scene Professor Herford says: "The Duchess of
York's ride, and the tragi-comic encounter of
plea and counter-plea which follows, is Shake-
speare's addition [to Holinshed], a strangely injudi-
cious one."2
Professor Baker comments as follows upon the
closing portion of The Two Gentlemen of Verona:
"Having lured his audience on by writing scenes
which constantly promised complicated action
ahead, when the closing in of the afternoon at
last drives him to bay, [the dramatist] gets out of
his difficulties in the swiftest possible fashion, but
with complete sacrifice of good dramatic art, the
rich possibilities of his material, and truth to
life."3
The ordinary student of Shakespeare is not a
Dowden, a Herford, or a Baker; but it is his task
1 Cited by Herford in his ed. of Richard II, Heath,
p. 179.
2 The Eversley Shakespeare, Vol. VI, p. 233.
3 The Development 0} Shakespeare as a Dramatist,
Macmillan, 1907, p. 122.
12 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
lis truly as it is theirs to form his own opinion
concerning the relative success or failure of the
dramatist at each point. He will look upon Shake-
speare as a great fellow-man, not as a god. If
the poet seems to him to have committed an artistic
fault at any point, he will say so. He may grad-
ually modify any particular conclusion, but only
by being honest with himself can he ever rise on
the stepping-stones of outgrown opinions to a finer
and fuller appreciation of Shakespeare, and so to
a finer and fuller intellectual life.
In what order is it most profitable to read the
plays of Shakespeare? The order which is indi-
cated a little later in this Introduction attempts
to accomplish two things. The first purpose is
to study the plays approximately in the order in
which they were written; the second purpose is
to read together plays of the same general class.
The gradual development of Shakespeare's mind
and art is a fascinating subject of study. This
continued story gives a constant interest to the
study of the successive plays. It is also very sug-
gest tve and stimulating to compare plays of the
same kind. The plays are therefore taken up in
small groups. Each group contains only plays
of the same general type, and the groups follow
each other in chronological order. The three
larger classes rec< 6nized in the First Folio, come-
INTRODUCTION 13
dies, histories, tragedies, are made the basis of the
grouping here presented; but Cymbeline and
TroUus and Cressida are considered as comedies;
and Pericles, not in the First Folio, belongs in the
same class.
As in the Folio, only the dramas based upon
English history subsequent to the Norman Con-
quest are treated as histories. Those concerned
with earlier, legendary British history, and those
treating Roman history, are not included among
the plays called "histories." It is plain that this
•class is not logically co-ordinate with the two other
divisions, comedies and tragedies. Some of the
histories are genuine comedies; the best example is
/ Henry IV. Others are genuine tragedies; a
striking example is Richard III. But something
like half of the histories are what may be called
chronicle-plays, in distinction from both comedies
and tragedies. A chronicle-play may be roughly
denned as one that presents the important events
of a reign or a period, rather than a complete,
unified action. A play which I should call distinc-
tively a chronicle-play is likely to have one or more
of the following peculiarities: to show what may
be termed two or more coexistent rival main lines
of action; to have two or more successive main
actions; to begin a new line of action at the close
of a play (or Part); to complete an action fully
14 QUESTIONS OX SHAKESPEARE
inaugurated in a preceding play (or Part), or in
preceding history.
The attempt to dramatize authentic English
history makes all of these ten plays sufficiently
alike to be looked upon as forming one general
class; and it is interesting to trace in them the
growth of Shakespeare's power to present history
in the form of drama.
In order to get a correct impression of Shake-
speare as a historical dramatist, it is necessary that
the four plays which treat of the fall of the house
of Lancaster and the coming of Henry VII be
studied before the riper tetralogy which presents
the rise of Lancaster. It is not best, after reading
/ Henry IV, to gO back to the artistic crudity of
/ Henry VI. I follow at this point the example
of Professor Herford in The Eversley Shakespeare.
In all cases the order of the plays within each
smaller group follows that of Neilson's edition, the
most satisfactory one-volume Shakespeare.
The following table will make clear the order in
which the present writer recommends that the
plays and poems of Shakespeare be read by one
who seeks to trace the development of his mind
and art. The table indicates also the plan for
the successive Parts of the present work.
INTRODUCTION 15
QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
PART II {Ready)
I. The First Histories: The Fall of Lancaster and
the Coming of Tudor.
1. I Henry VI.
2. II Henry VI.
3. Ill Henry VI.
4. Richard III.
I A. The Early Poems.
Venus and Adonis.
The Rape of Lucrece.
A Lover's Complaint.
The Passionate Pilgrim
The Phoenix and the Turtle.
II. The First Comedies.
5. Love's Labour's Lost.
6. The Comedy of Errors.
7. The Two Gentlemen of Verona.
8. A Midsummer-Night's Dream.
PART III
III. The First Tragedies.
9. Titus Andronicus.
10. Romeo and Juliet.
IV The Riper Histories: King John, and the Rise
of Lancaster.
n. King John.
12. Richard II.
16 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
13. I Henry IV.
14. II Henry IV.
15. Henry V.
PART IV
V. The Sunny Middle Comedies.
16. The Merchant of Venice.
17. The Taming of the Shrew.
18. The Merry Wives of Windsor.
19. Much Ado about Nothing.
20. As You Like It.
21. Twelfth Night.
VA. The Sonnets.1
VI. The Sterner Middle Comedies.
22. T roil us and Cressida.
23. All's Well That Ends Well.
24. Measure for Measure.
PART V
VII. The Period oj Tragedy.
25. Julius Caesar.
26. Hamlc t.
27. Othello.
28. King Lear.
1 Unfortunately the statement appears in Part II, which
was in type some time before Part I, that the Sonnets are
to be taken up immediately after Group III of the plays.
That statemenl is hereby canceled.
INTRODUCTION 17
29. Macbeth.
30. Timon of Athens.
31. Antony and Cleopatra.
32. Coriolanus.
PART VI
VIII. The Last Comedies: The Reconciliation Plays.
32,- Pericles.
34. Cymbeline.
35. The Winter's Tale.
36. The Tempest.
IX. One More History.
37. Henry VIII.
In making up the smaller groups that have been
given, it has been necessary to disturb somewhat
the chronological order of the works. Thus,
Shakespeare's first history, first poem, and first
comedy may well have been composed at dates
not far apart, Venus and Adonis being probably
the earliest of the three. Also, the later plays of
Group IV, the riper histories, and the earlier plays
of Group V, the sunny middle comedies, are be-
lieved to belong in general to the same years,
1596-99. The groups are in part synchronous,
not successive. Although the three sterner come-
dies which make up Group VI cannot be dated
with accuracy, they probably belong to the same
years as the earlier tragedies of Group VII.
1 8 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
In the succession of the plays three somewhat
sudden breaks are apparent. The first is the
striking change in technique and dramatic method
that is noted in passing from Richard II to I Henry
IV. This sharp contrast is due in part to our
method of grouping; Neilson suggests 1594 and
1597 as the dates of the two plays.
The two other marked breaks in our table are
the abrupt change of tone in going from Group V,
the sunny middle comedies, to Groups VI and VII,
the sterner middle comedies and the great trage-
dies; and the equally abrupt change of mood that
we experience when we leave behind Group VII,
the period of tragedy, and take up Group VIII, the
last comedies, the reconciliation plays. These two
sudden alterations in the tone and temper of the
plays are noteworthy. They challenge attention.
How shall they be interpreted ?
In the following words Stopford Brooke brings
out the contrast between the sunny middle come-
dies and the plays which follow, and connects this
change in tone with some of the known facts of
Shakespeare's life:
Shakespeare had grown wealthy during this period,
famous, and loved by society. He was the friend of
the Earls of Southampton and Essex, and of William
Herbert, Lord Pembroke. The Queen patronized
him; all the best literary society was his own. He
INTRODUCTION 19
had rescued his father from poverty, bought the best
house in Stratford and much land, and was a man of
wealth and comfort. Suddenly all his life seens
to have grown dark. His best friends fell into ruin,
Essex perished on the scaffold, Southampton went to
the Tower, Pembroke was banished from the court;
he may himself, as some have thought, have been con-
cerned in the rising of Essex. Added to this, we may
conjecture, from the imaginative pageantry of the
Sonnets, that he had unwisely loved, and been betrayed
in his love by a dear friend. Disgust of his profession
as an actor and public and private ill weighed heavily
on him, and in darkness of spirit, though still clinging
to the business of the theatre, he passed from comedy
to write of the sterner side of the world, to tell the
tragedy of mankind.
His third period .... opens with Julius Caesar.
.... The darker sins of men, the unpitying fate
which slowly gathers round and falls on men, the
avenging wrath of conscience, the cruelty and punish-
ment of weakness, the treachery, lust, jealousy, ingrati-
tude, madness of men, the follies of the great and the
fickleness of the mob, are all, with a thousand other
varying moods and passions, painted, and felt as his
own while he painted them, during this stern time.1
It is dangerous to give to these changes in Shake-
speare's writing an unqualifiedly autobiographical
interpretation. We do not know enough about his
1 Primer 0} English Literature (New York, 1882), pp.
99-100.
20 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
personal history to do this with certainty. Pro-
fessor Thorndike, in various publications, has given
to some features in the succession of the plays a
literary interpretation. That is, he would say that
Shakespeare followed the literary fashions of his
day. Thus, the dramatist sought to succeed in a
business way rather than to express his own mood.
For example, Thorndike holds that Hamlet was
written to take advantage of the great interest in
"revenge plays" which had been aroused by The
Spanish Tragedy, perhaps the most popular play of
its period, and other similar dramas.1 There is
unquestionably much truth in this method of ex-
plaining the production of Hamlet.
Mr. Sidney Lee looks upon the Sonnets as
exercises written in accordance with a prevailing
literary fashion. Indeed, he may fairly be said
to have proved that they were so written; but his
conclusion that therefore the Sonnets have little
autobiographical significance is something which
he has not proved, and which most students can-
not accept.
I believe in the substantial truth of the auto-
biographical interpretation of the changes in
Shakespeare's mood, but we must be careful not
1 "The Relations of Hamlet to Contemporary Revenge
Plays," Publications Modem Language Asso.f XYII (1902),
pp. 125-220.
INTRODUCTION 21
to interpret them in this way exclusively or too
specifically.
Halliwell-Phillipps once jested at the idea that
Shakespeare's writing was decisively influenced by
his mood, by the stage reached in his mental and
emotional development. Professor Walter Raleigh
both quotes and answers Halliwell-Phillipps in
the following passage:
Plays of the same type have been shown to fall
within the same period of [Shakespeare's] life. His
early boisterous Comedies and his prentice- work on
history are followed by his joyous Comedies and
mature Histories; these again by his Tragedies and
painful Comedies; and last, at the close of his career,
he reverts to Comedy, but Comedy so unlike the former
kind, that modern criticism has been compelled to
invent another name for these final plays, and has
called them Romances. There is no escape from the
broad lines of this classification. No single play can
be proved to fall out of the company of its own kind.
The fancies of those critics who amuse themselves
by picturing Shakespeare as the complete tradesman
have no facts to work upon. "One wonders," says
Mr. Halliwell-Phillipps, "what Heminge and Condel,
would have thought if they had applied to Shakespeare
for a new comedy, and the great dramatist had told
them that he could not possibly comply with their
wishes, he being then in his Tragic Period." What
they would have thought may admit a wide conjecture;
22 QUESTIONS OX SHAKESPEARE
what they got is less doubtful. If they asked for a
comedy when he was writing his great tragedies, they
got Measure for Measure or Troilus and Cressida; if
they asked for a tragedy when he was writing his hap-
piest works of wit and lyric fantasy, they got Romeo
and Juliet.1
It is at least clear that there are four larger
periods in the writings of the dramatist. These
Professor Neilson has happily termed the periods
of experiment, of sunshine, of gloom, and of
placidity.2 How far this succession of moods rep-
resents a simple process of mental and moral
ripening, and how far it was caused by special
circumstances, we shall never fully know.
It is pleasant to feel that Shakespeare's last
mood was a kindly one. His closing dramas I
have called reconciliation plays; for Henry VIII is
believed to be only in part by him. In each of the
three that are wholly the work of the dramatist —
Cymbeline, The Winter's Tale, The Tempest —
there are wron^-doing and estrangement; but after
sin and suffering comes peace, the peace of for-
giveness. In The Winters Tale we are back in
the country again; we see the festival of the sheep-
1 Shakespeare (in "The English Men of Letters"),
M.k millan, 1007, p. 131.
2 Complete Works of SJiakespeare, 1 vol., Houghton,
k;o6, pp. xiv-xv.
INTRODUCTION 23
shearing, and the wild flowers of the Avon meadows.
"The wheel is come full circle." To one who
reads the plays in the order here indicated, these,
closing dramas are a benediction. The gracious,
queenly women who here smile upon us are the
choicest embodiments of human nobleness, of
moral beauty, in all literature. In Miranda,
Imogen, Perdita, and Hermione, we have a vision
of "the crowning race of human-kind."
THE STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE'S
LANGUAGE
THE STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE'S
LANGUAGE
Introduction
The usual method of studying Shakespeare's
language is to take up the peculiar words and
expressions in succession, just as these meet one
in reading the text. In this way one is always
dealing with an individual item, with a single fact.
The tendency is to forget all about one word in
passing on to the next; one nail drives out another
in regular sequence. The ordinary student does
not easily rise from these successive particulars
to interesting general facts and larger truths, of
which the individual items are simply happy
illustrations.
In order that his classes might escape from this
tyranny of particulars, and might grasp some of
the larger facts and characteristics of Shakespeare's
language, the writer has often described for them
in detail some of the peculiarities which mark the
style of the dramatist, and asked them to find illus-
trations of each of these points in the play that was
then being considered. It is out of such exercises
that this part of the present work has grown.
The attempt has been made to indicate here the
most salient peculiarities of the grammar and dic-
27
28 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
tion of Shakespeare, usually points in which it
differs from the accepted English usage of the
present day. It is intended that the topics given
below shall be made a basis for independent work
on the part of the pupil. He should be asked to
furnish illustrations of some, at least, of the points
specified; and he should be encouraged to point
out any general facts which he may observe that
have not been here formulated.
To a degree which seems bewildering to a modern
reader, Shakespeare wrote as he pleased. Coming
before English usage had been systematized and
tabulated, before any grammars or dictionaries
had been made, he did what seemed right in his
own eyes. Thus he enjoyed an intoxicating meas-
ure of freedom, though he was always subject,
of course, to the necessity of being understood by
his readers. Shakespeare is always ready, for
example, to use any word as a noun, verb, or ad-
jective, whatever may be the part of speech to
which it originally and regularly belongs. He is
equally ready to use a word in a new meaning. We
shall take up some of these licenses later under
separate heads. In this daring practice of word-
coinage he probably went beyond other men of
his age. Says Professor Raleigh: "Although the
first recorded occurrence of a word or meaning
often belongs to Shakespeare, it is impossible, in
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 29
any given case, to prove that he was the first in-
ventor. But the cumulative evidence for his invent-
ive habit is irresistible."1
Shakespeare's characters use colloquial English.
Even in the formal blank-verse speeches of kings
and nobles, this colloquial coloring is present,
helping to give a lifelike impression. Mixtures
of constructions extreme ellipses, and illogical
case-forms of the pronouns, are some of the collo-
quial licenses that we shall touch upon later. I
will give one illustration of this colloquial quality.
In the following passage Henry V begins to sum-
marize in the indirect form a proclamation which
he wishes to have made to the soldiers. Suddenly,
in the middle of his sentence, becoming indignant
at an imagined coward, he passes to the more
vivid imperative of the proclamation itself:
Rather proclaim it, Westmoreland, through my host,
That he which hath no stomach to this fight,
Let him depart.
— Henry V, IV. iii. 34-36.
It is usually impossible to distinguish sharply
between the English of Shakespeare and Eliza-
bethan English. By the help of the New English
Dictionary, some two-thirds of which is now com-
pleted, individual coined words can often be traced
1 Shakespeare, Macmillan (1907), p. 217.
■ua
30 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
to Shakespeare as their possible or probable creator;
but even in these cases the dramatist has only
coined such words as others felt free to fashion.
In general, the student of Shakespeare's language
should recognize that he is studying simply the
finest and fullest expression of Elizabethan English.
Shakespeare made use of an astonishingly large
number of different words, though he has compara-
tively few archaic or dialectic forms. His vocabu-
lary has been estimated at 20,000 words; while
Milton employed only 7,000 to 8,000. Strangely
enough, the amazing variety and naturalness of
Shakespeare's language seem to have disguised
his greatness from the men of his own day. The
self-consciousness and even the affectations of
Lyly, Sidney, Spenser, and Ben Jonson caused
them to be honored very early as creators and mod-
els of refined English. Gill, the master of St.
Paul's School, London, in his grammatical work
on English, Logonomia Anglica, 1619, cites Sidney,
Spenser, and Ben Jonson, but never Shakespeare.
The first English dictionary that makes citations
from Shakespeare comes from the year 1725. The
first one for which the writings of the great drama-
tist were really a chief source was that of Dr. John-
son, published in 1755. Shakespeare's language
was too natural to seem important to the men of
his own day, and too diversified to lead to much
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 31
imitation. We appreciate the mental greatness
and the creative power that are expressed in the
naturalness, copiousness, and many-sidedness of
his diction; but his contemporaries did not.1
The development of Shakespeare's style is not
taken up here. Little indication is given, in con-
nection with the following topics, of the fact that
the plays do not all manifest the same maturity
of mind, and that they do not all show a single,
uniform mode of expression. The characteristics
of Shakespeare's early manner, the changes therein
which gradually manifested themselves, the intense,
elliptical style of the final plays, and other topics
of this nature will be studied in connection with
particular plays. Naturally the growth of Shake-
speare's style will not come up for any full treat-
ment in the questions upon the earlier plays. The
subject cannot be considered with care until there
has been a sufficient amount of change so that
plays can be compared which are somewhat
different in style, and the trend of the development
can be brought out.
■ In selecting and stating the following topics,
free use has been made of the works upon the lan-
guage and grammar of Shakespeare that are men-
1 This paragraph is based upon Professor Friedrich
Kluge's article "Ueber die Sprache Shakes peares,"
Jahrbuch XXVIII, 1-15. See especially pp. 3, 4, 6.
32 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
tioncd in the Bibliography, but for the most part
specific references to them are not given. The
writer wishes to acknowledge his special indebted-
ness to Abbott, Franz, Schmidt, Clarke, Jespersen,
and C. Alphonso Smith.
The intention has been to state the following
points clearly and briefly, with a minimum of
explanation and comment.
I. Nouns
i. Coined nouns. — A word belonging primarily
to some other part of speech is used as a noun when
desired.
Lady, you are the cruell'st she alive.
— Twelfth Night, I. v. 259.
Thou losest here, a better where to find.
— King Lear, I. i. 264.
2. Adjective form as abstract noun. — Contrary
to present usage, an adjective may be used as an
abstract noun, denoting a quality.
Say what you can, my false o'erweighs your true.
— Measure for Measure, II. iv. 170.
3. Adjective form as substantive to denote single
person.— Contrary to present usage, an adjective
may be used substantively to denote a single
person.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 33
'Tis not enough to help the feeble up,
But to support him after.
— Timon of Athens, I. i. 107-8.
4. Abstract noun with concrete meaning. — An
abstract noun is frequently used with concrete
meaning. This kind of metonymy "is common to
all languages . . . . , but no [other] poet has been
nearly so bold in it as Shakespeare" (Schmidt).
The murmuring lips of discontent.
— King John, IV. ii. 53.
Farewell, fair cruelty.
— Twelfth Night, I. v. 307.
5. Abstract noun in the plural. — An abstract
noun is often used in the plural by Shakespeare
where present usage would employ the singular.
Evidently the word was not so completely abstract
then as it is now.
I will requite your loves.
— Hamlet, I. ii. 251.
Hold your peaces.
— Winter's Tale, II. i. 139.
II. The Pronouns
There is very much irregularity in the use of
the pronouns in Shakespeare. Says Lounsbury:
After the middle of the sixteenth century .... the
distinction between nominative and objective was
34 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
showing everywhere symptoms of breaking down. In
fact, if the language of the Elizabethan drama represents
fairly the language of society .... great license in
this respect had begun to prevail. Me, thee, us, you,
him, her, and them were frequently treated as nomina-
tives; while the corresponding nominative forms were
treated as objectives. Modernized editions of the
authors of that period do not in this respect represent
justly the usage of the time, as in all or nearly all of
them changes in the text are silently made. But, with
the exception of ye and you, this confusion of case did
not become universally accepted. The original dis-
tinction gradually reasserted itself, and is now perhaps
more strongly insisted upon, at least by grammarians,
than at any period since the sixteenth century. Yet
the popular, and to some extent the literary speech
has preserved expressions which still show this dis-
regard of strict inflection.1
Let us look at a few general facts which will
throw light upon some of the particular points that
are to be taken up.
The nominative of a pronoun is felt to be the
general or naming form of the word. Whenever,
therefore, the construction of a pronoun is not
distinctly felt, the speaker is likely to put it into
the general form, that is, into the nominative. Let
us now bring into connection with this point
1 History oj the Eng. Language, ed. of 1894 (Holt),
PP- «72 73-
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 35
another general fact which Professor C. Alphonso
Smith terms "the short circuit in English syntax."
By this phrase he means that "syntactical relations
do not span wide spaces in English. The laws of
concord, especially as illustrated in spoken English,
operate best at close quarters. They do not carry
far."1 Thus in the expression between you and I
(Merchant of Venice, III. ii. 321), which is still
heard, the governing force of between seems to be
all expended upon the first object; and the second
pronoun, so to speak, escapes into the general
form, the nominative.
Another important fact is the influence of position.
Because the subject of the finite verb is in the
nominative and regularly precedes the verb, the
position before the verb comes to be associated
with the nominative form. We shall find that a
pronoun which precedes the verb is sometimes
put into the nominative even when it is logically
the object of a verb or a preposition, simply because
1 Studies in English Syntax (Ginn), 1906, pp. 33-34.
While I am constantly indebted to Professor Smith's
admirable paper upon "The Short Circuit in English
Syntax'1 (Studies, etc., pp. 32-60), I find the title somewhat
misleading. "The short circuit" suggests to me ellipsis,
omission, which is not the idea at all. As substitutes for
Professor Smith's expression I would suggest "the short
word-group," or "the short syntactic group." These
phrases seem to me somewhat clearer.
36 QUESTIONS OX SHAKESPEARE
it stands in what may be called nominative territory.
In a similar way the position after the verb becomes
associated with the objective form, and pronouns
which stand there sometimes take an objective
form to which they are not logically entitled.1
An illogical form of a pronoun is sometimes used
as the result of an ellipsis, the omission of words
necessary to indicate the complete construction.
Because the nature of the omission is misappre-
hended, an inappropriate form of the pronoun is
sometimes used. Comparative expressions with
than and as are elliptical, and often contain a
pronoun in an illogical case-form. For example:
A man no mightier than thyself or me
— Julius Caesar, I. iii. 76.
Let us pass now to particular facts concerning
the use of pronouns in Shakespeare.
1. Object of preposition in nominative. — A pro-
noun used as one of the later objects of a preposi-
tion often takes the nominative form. See above.
There is such a league between my good man and he!
— Merry Wives, III. ii. 25-26.
2. Object of verb in nominative. — A pronoun
used as one of the later objects of a transitive verb
may take the nominative form.
1 Cf. chap, iii of Smith's Studies.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 37
Praise him that got thee, she that gave thee suck.
— Troilus and Cressida, II. iii. 252.
3. Irregular ap positional use. — A pronoun often
takes the nominative form when used in apposition
with a noun or another pronoun that is in the
objective relation.
We that take purses go by the moon and the seven
stars, and not by Phoebus, he, "that wandering knight
so fair."
— / Henry IV, I. ii. 15-17.
It should be noted that an appositive to a noun
or pronoun in the possessive case is often put in
the nominative in present English. Smith cites
from Tennyson:
He saw his brother's shield, Sir Lionel.
4. Doubling of pronoun. — An idea is sometimes
named by means of a pronoun in the nominative,
and then, in order to conform to the construction,
is repeated in a pronoun in the possessive or ob-
jective. This is an example of "the short circuit. "
The sentence breaks up into semi-independent
groups of words.
Your majesty and we that have free souls, it touches
us not.
— Hamlet, III. ii. 251-52.
5. Logical subject in nominative. — Sometimes
a grammatical objective seems to be felt as the
38 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
subject of a proposition, and to be put in the
nominative for this reason.
Let fortune go to hell for it, not /.
[= Fortune shall go to hell for it, not I.]
— Merchant of Venice, III. ii. 21.
We are free to say here that two constructions
have been carelessly mingled (see VII, 1), and that
the not me of the first construction indicated has
been replaced by the not I of the second.
6. Subject of infinitive in nominative. — Occa-
sionally the nominative of the pronoun seems to
be used after a conjunction as the subject of an
infinitive, the infinitive being felt, however, as a
finite verb.
Heaven would that she these gifts should have,
And / to live and die her slave.
— As You Like It, III. ii. 161-62.
7. His = its. — His (possessive of the older
neuter nominative hit) is the usual word in Shake-
speare for the meaning its; however, the form
it is used fifteen times in the First Folio in the
meaning of its. The modern its (sometimes
appearing as it's) occurs ten times, but only in
dramas that were printed for the first time in the
First Folio, 1623 (Franz, Grundziige, § 159).
How far that little candle throws his beams!
— Merchant oj Venice, X . i. 90.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 39
It lifted up it head
— Hamlet, I. ii. 216.
8. Peculiar uses of possessive. — A pronoun is
sometimes employed in the objective genitive
(possessive) contrary to present usage; less com-
monly the same is true of a pronoun in the sub-
jective genitive.
To have his sight [=the sight of him] thither and back
again.
— Midsummer- N ighf s Dream, I. i. 251.
They know the corn
Was not our recompense [=a recompense given by us].
— Coriolanus, III. i. 120-21.
9. Dative uses. Ethical dative. — The objective
form of the pronoun is often used to represent the
older dative of advantage or disadvantage, where
we should employ a preposition.
His physicians fear [for] him mightily.
— Richard III, I. i. 137.
The form me is sometimes used simply to indicate
the interest of the speaker in what he is saying.
This usage is known as the ethical dative. You
is employed in a somewhat similar way to bring
out the assumed personal interest of the listener
in what is said. This use may fairly be included
in the ethical dative. The possessive your often
has a similar effect.
40 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
He plucked me ope his doublet and offered them his
throat to cut.
— Julius Caesar, I. ii. 267-68.
If a' be not rotten before a' die ... . a' will last
you some eight year or nine year: a tanner will last
you nine year.
— Hamlet, V. i. 180-84.
Your serpent of Egypt is bred now of your mud by
the operation of your sun.
— Antony and Cleopatra, II. vii. 29-30.
The ethical dative shades off into the dative
of advantage, already treated.
I followed me close.
— / Henry IV, II. iv. 240-41.
10. "77 is I" etc. — 77 15 /, it is he, etc., represent
the regular usage of Shakespeare. The modern
colloquialisms of the type it is me, it is him, etc.,
occur but eight times, according to Smith, "the
speakers being in three cases illiterates."
This is he.
—Love's Labours Lost, I. i. 187.
Timon. Ay, [I am proud] that I am not thee.
— Timon of Athens, IV. iii. 277.
11. "Fare thee well," etc. — Expressions of this
type are very common in Shakespeare. This usage
may be explained in different ways : (1 ) as a blunder
lor fare thou well, due to the influence of the usual
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 41
word-order, verb plus object; (2) the spelling thee is
a misinterpretation of the dull pronunciation of
thou after an emphatic verb (Abbott. Compare
"Woa then, wiltha [ = thou]? damgtha [=thee]!"
in Tennyson's Northern Farmer: New Style) ;
(3) thee is a correct reflexive dative, the expression
meaning something like fare well for thy self
(Franz) ; (4) a mixture of constructions is possible,
expressions like fare thou well and keep thee well
having been blended. When the verb is transitive,
or may be so considered, as in haste thee, get thee
away, (5) the thee may be considered as a direct
reflexive object (=thy self).
12. The force of "thou" — Thou, in Shakespeare,
is used toward a friend or relative to express affec-
tionate intimacy; toward one of lower social
standing, a servant, a dog, etc., to express good-
humored or even affectionate superiority; toward
a stranger or a formal acquaintance to express
contempt or insult; and, as now, in the higher
poetic style, and in the language of solemn prayer.
It seems strange to us that one form should indicate
all these ideas; but a man of today, as Smith points
out, addresses his dog, servant, child, and wife by
the personal name only;1 and he may address God
directly in prayer without the use of any formal
expression of honor.
1 Studies in English Syntax, pp. 29-30.
42 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
If the respectful sir is used, the form you is
commonly associated with it.
Sometimes these distinctions come to clear
expression. In the dialogue between Hamlet
and the grave-digger (Hamlet, V. i. 127-201),
the Prince instinctively uses thou to the laborer.
The grave-digger jests very freely with his unknown
interlocutor, but, recognizing him as a man of
rank and culture, employs you. The thou of
intimacy and the thou of insult are both indicated
in the advice which Sir Toby gives to Sir Andrew
about writing the challenge:
If thou thou'st him some thrice, it shall not be amiss.
— Tweljth Night, III. ii. 48-49.
It must be admitted, however, that Shakespeare's
use of thou and you is sometimes hard to interpret,
and sometimes inconsistent. Abbott hardly suc-
ceeds in explaining the inconsistency in the letter
of Artemidorus to Caesar:
If thou beest not immortal, look about you.
-Julius Caesar, II. iii. 7-8.
13. "77" as hide finite object. — 77 is sometimes
used as an indefinite object. In a few cases the
word may refer to something already in the mind
of the person addressed; but often the it represents
no definite idea, especially when joined to an
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 43
intransitive verb. This indefinite it is very apt
to be used with a verb that has been made out of
some other part of speech.
Pernicious protector, dangerous peer,
That smooth'st it so with king and commonweal !
— II Henry VI, II. i. 21-22.
Lord Angelo dukes it well.
— Measure for Measure, III. ii. 100.
14. The reinforced substantive. — A syntactically
superfluous personal pronoun is sometimes placed
immediately after its substantive. This seems
to give emphasis. Sometimes the pronoun stands
for a long substantive clause. When a clause has
intervened, the reinforcing pronoun often brings
out the construction more distinctly.
On what occasion, God he knows, not I.
—Richard III, III. i. 26.
God, I pray him,
That none of you may live your natural age.
— Ibid., I. iii. 212-13.
My brother he is in Elysium.
— Twelfth Night, I. ii. 4.
That I have ta'en away this old man's
daughter,
77 is most true.
— Othello, I. iii. 78-79.
44 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
.... and my two school -fellows,
Whom I will trust as I will adders fang'd,
They bear the mandate.
— Hamlet, III. iv. 202-4
15. The reinforced relative pronoun. — The rela-
tive pronoun is often reinforced by a personal
pronoun. This makes the meaning more distinct,
and the sentence easier of apprehension.
.... your brave father, whom.
Though bearing misery, I desire my life
Once more to look on him.
— Winter's Tale, V. i. 136-38.
Both the reinforced substantive and the rein-
forced relative are examples of "the short circuit,"
or the short word-group, as explained above.
16. Two-faced words. — But may sometimes be
looked upon either as a preposition, to be followed
by the objective, or as a conjunction introducing
the subject of a new clause in the nominative.
The same is true of except, and occasionally of
other words. Since expressions of comparison
are often very elliptical, the conjunction than or
the conjunction as may be followed by a pronoun
which can reasonably be conceived either as a
nominative or as an objective. These ambiguous
words helped to confuse the mind, and easily led to
the use of illogical case-forms, abundant examples
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 45
of which can be found in modern English also.
Than whom has become with us the only allowable
form.
Methinks no body should be sad but /
[two-faced].
— King John, IV. i. 13.
You know my father hath no child but /
[=me].
— As You Like It, I. ii. 18.
.... for my soul, yet I know not why, hates
nothing worse than he [—him].
— Ibid., I. i. 171-72.
17. Who = whom. — Who, both interrogative and
relative, is constantly used in the objective relation.
This arises undoubtedly from the fact that who
regularly begins the sentence or clause, and so
stands in the customary place of the subject.
When whom is used where who is called for, it is
usually clear that we have a careless mixture of
constructions, or that some attraction has operated.
Sweet declares that "in present spoken English
whom may be said to be extinct, except in the rare
construction with a preposition immediately before
it, as in Of whom are you speaking?"1
[I must] wail his fall
Who I myself struck down.
— Macbeth, III. i. 122-23.
1 New English Grammar (Clarendon Press), I, p. 342.
46 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Iago. He's married.
Cassio. To who?
— Othello, I. ii. 52.
Young Ferdinand, whom they suppose is
drown'd.
[A mixture of whom . ... to be drown' d and w/w
. ... is drown'd.]
— Tempest, III. iii. 92.
18. See IV, § 1, concerning the agreement of the
relative pronoun and its verb.
19. Attraction by a relative. — A personal pronoun
which is the antecedent of a neighboring relative,
or of one that is omitted, is sometimes attracted
into the case of the relative.
.... when him [=hewhom] we serve's away.
— Antony and Cleopatra, III. i. 15.
20. Omission of relative or of antecedent. — The
relative pronoun is omitted much more freely than
in present English. " Modern usage confines this
omission mostly to the objective" (Abbott).
. . the hate of those [who] love not the king.
— Richard II, II. ii. 128.
Thy honourable metal may be wrought
From that [to which] it is disposed.
— Julius Caesar, I. ii. 313-14.
The relative wJw is sometimes used with the
antecedent omitted.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 47
Fixing our eyes on [him on] whom our
care was fix'd.
— Comedy of Errors, I. i. 85.
I will set this foot of mine as far
As [he] who goes farthest.
— Julius Caesar, I. iii. 119-20.
21. Implied antecedent. — Shakespeare often uses
a pronoun when the antecedent has been merely
implied, not specifically named.
The king loves you;
Beware you lose it not.
— Henry VIII, III. i. 171-72.
Anon he's there afoot,
And there they fly or die.
— Troilus and Cressida, V. v. 21-22.
22. "Which" with clause for antecedent. — The
use of which with a clause for its antecedent is
more common than in present English.
And, which became him like a prince indeed,
He made a blushing cital of himself.
— / Henry IV, V. ii. 61-62.
23. "Who" impersonal, "which" personal. —
The relative who often applies to things and animals
and which to persons.
The first [casket], of gold, who this inscription bears,
— Merchant oj Venice, II. vii. 4.
48 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
.... a gentleman
Which I have sometime known.
—All's Well, III. ii. 86-87.
24. Pronoun separated from antecedent. — Per-
sonal and relative pronouns are more freely sepa-
rated from their antecedents than in present
English, even when the separation causes difficulty
or ambiguity.
.... when the searching eye of heaven is hid
Behind the globe, that [=eye of heaven] lights
the lower world,
— Richard II, ill. ii. 37-38.
By this, your king
Hath heard of great Augustus: Caius Lucius
Will do's commission throughly; and I think
He [=your king] '11 grant the tribute.
— Cymbeline, II. iv. 10-13.
25. Adverbial use of "what." — What is often
used adverbially, meaning why. Compare Latin
quid.
What need we any spur but our own cause,
To prick us to redress ?
— Julius Caesar, II. i. 123-24.
III. Verbs
(See also under IV)
1. Coined verbs. — Shakespeare feels perfectly
free to make verbs, either transitive or intransitive,
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 49
out of words belonging to other parts of speech;
also to make intransitive verbs transitive, and the
reverse. It is impossible to be absolutely sure,
in any particular case, that Shakespeare was the
first one to employ a new usage; but his perfect
willingness to coin new verbs is unquestionable.
It shall advantage more than do us wrong.
— Julius Caesar, III. i. 242.
.... be he ne'er so vile,
This day shall gentle his condition.
— Henry V, IV. iii. 63.
He childed as I father' df
— King Lear, III. vi. 117.
2. The subjunctive mood. — The subjunctive
forms were used much more freely than with us.
They were especially common in subordinate
clauses to express an assertion made doubtfully or
conditionally. Consequently it was much more
easy for the Elizabethans to interpret as subjunc-
tives verbal forms which are logically such, but
which do not differ outwardly from indicatives.
The subjunctive mood was employed in independ-
ent sentences to express wish.
She were an excellent wife for Benedick.
— Much Ado, II. i. 366-67.
I hope he be in love.
— Ibid., III. ii. 17.
50 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
'Twere best he speak no harm of Brutus here.
— Julius Caesar, III. ii. 73.
Disorder, that hath spoil'd us, friend us now!
— Henry V, IV. v. 17.
3. Omission of verb of motion. — The omission
of a verb of motion after an auxiliary is very com-
mon; sometimes such a verb is wanting after an
adverb or a preposition that implies motion.
77/ home to-morrow.
— Twelfth Night, I. iii. in.
And every man hence to his idle bed.
— Julius Caesar, II. i. 117.
Towards Florence is he ?
—All's Well, III. ii. 71.
4. Impersonal verbs. — There were many more
impersonal verbs in Elizabethan English than are
found in present usage. Shakespeare sometimes
uses a verb either personally or impersonally at
will.
Diomedes. I do not like this fooling.
Thet 'sites. Nor I, by Pluto: but that that likes not
you pleases me best.
— Troilus and Cressida, V. ii. 101-3.
5. Double object, person and clause. — Shake-
speare uses freely after transitive verbs a double
object, a person plus a clause, where we should
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 51
omit the personal object. Kellner points out that
this older usage is more concrete.1 Compare I, § 5.
I see you ivhat you are, you are too proud.
— Twelfth Night, I. v. 269.
6. Strong preterite and participle alike. — The
preterite and the past participle of a strong verb
are sometimes made alike contrary to present
usage. Since these two forms are regularly alike
in all of the weak verbs and in many of the strong,
there has always been a marked tendency to assimi-
late them.
I drunk him to his bed.
— Antony and Cleopatra, II. v. 21.
.... our dastard nobles, who
Have all forsook me, ....
— Coriolanus, IV. v. 81-82.
7. Omission of -en or -n of strong participle. —
The final -en or -n of the past participle of a strong
verb is often omitted contrary to present usage.
Modern English is very conservative here. It
rarely drops this ending, except in the case of the
sing and bind verbs, which already end in a nasal
or a nasal combination.
He has broke my head across.
— Twelfth Night, V. i. 178.
1 Historical Outlines of English Syntax (Macmillan),
§§ 24, 94-
52 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
8. Omission of -ed or -t of weak participle. —
The final -ed or -/ of the past participle of a weak
verb is often omitted contrary to present usage.
This is partly due to the influence of the Latin
perfect participles, and partly to that of the con-
tracted past participles of English weak verbs
ending in -d or -/, such as met, hurt, fed.
He was contract to Lady Lucy.
— Richard III, III. vii. 179.
A pure unspotted heart,
Never yet taint with love, I send the king.
—I Henry VI, V. iii. 182-83.
9. Participles with irregular force. — The par-
ticiples in -ing, -en, -n, -ed, -t are often used with
irregular force. Thus, beholding regularly has
the meaning beholden; -ed often has the force of
-able, etc. Words in -ed are often not proper
participles, but rather ordinary adjectives, some-
times newly coined. Such a word in -ed " formed
from an adjective means 'made (the adjective)/
and derived from a noun means 'endowed with
(the noun).' "—Abbott.
For Brutus' sake I am beholding to you.
— Julius Caesar, III. ii. 70.
All unavoided [unavoidable] is the doom of
destiny.
— Richard III, IV. iv. 217.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 53
Shall that victorious hand be jeebled here ?
— King John, V. ii. 146.
Thus ornament is but the guiled shore
To a most dangerous sea.
— Merchant oj Venice, III. ii. 97-98.
10. Presence or absence of icto" in infinitive. —
The to of the infinitive is often omitted and often
present contrary to modern usage. In particular,
if two infinitives which belong to the same auxiliary
have words intervening between them, the second
infinitive is apt to take a reinforcing to, to make
its nature clear. Smith points out that we some-
times have this to in present English; for example,
in the sentence, "I had rather stay than to go with
him."
Worthy Montano, you were wont be civil.
— Othello, II. iii. 190.
Keep your word, Phebe, that you'll marry me,
Or else, refusing me, to wed this shepherd.
— As You Like It, V. iv. 22-23.
11. The force of the infinitive with uto." — The
infinitive with to was often used where we should
now employ some other preposition with the infini-
tive in -ing. The first example given is one that
we might still use.
Thou but offend'st thy lungs to speak
[by speaking] so loud.
— Merchant 0] Venice, IV. i. 140.
54 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
If this be so, why blame you me to love
you [for loving] ?
— As You Like It, V. ii. no.
What cause withholds you then to mourn
[from mourning] for him ?
— Julius Caesar, III. ii. 108.
1 2. Infinitive with force of finite verb. — See II, § 6.
13. The use of "be" in the indicative. — Be is
often used as the plural of the present indicative.
These clothes are good enough to drink in; and so
be these boots too.
— Twelfth Night, I. iii. 11-12.
14. " Be" as auxiliary with verbs of motion, etc. —
Be is the regular auxiliary with verbs expressing
motion or a change of condition, where the lan-
guage now employs have. Modern German still
agrees with the Elizabethan usage.
The noble Brutus is ascended.
— Julius Caesar, III. ii. n.
Upon what meat doth this our Caesar feed,
That he is grown so great ?
— Ibid., I. ii. 149-50.
15. Negative sentences without "do," "does." —
In negative sentences, both indicative and impera-
tive, Shakespeare prefers the form without do,
docs. Franz notes that the verbs care, know,
doubt, mistake are rarely used with do, docs. The
SHARKS IMA RE'S LANGUAGE 55
phrases I care not, I know not, I doubt not, doubt not
(imperative) are very common.
/ love thee not, therefore pursue me not.
— Midsummer-Night's Dream, II. i. 188.
.... they perceive not how Time moves.
— As You Like It, III. ii. 350-51.
IV. The Agreement of Verb and Subject
1. Agreement with relative pronoun as subject. —
The relative pronoun is apt to take its verb in the
third person singular, whatever may be the person
or number of the antecedent. This is an example
of "the short syntactic group"; the antecedent
cannot "carry" so far, since there is nothing in
the form of the relative to indicate the person or
number. Modern editions of Shakespeare often
falsify the text in these cases.
.... and all things that belongs [Ff, Q,
Neilson; belong Cambridge, Herford].
— Taming of the Shrew, II. i. 357.
They laugh that wins [Qq, Fi, 2, 3, Neilson;
win F4, Cambridge, Herford].
-Othello, IV. i. 126.
[Time speaks] I, that please some, try all,
both joy and terror
Of good and bad, that makes and unfolds
error,
— Winter's Tale, IV. i. 1-2.
56 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
2. "Here is," etc., with plural subject. — Skeat
formulates the older usage thus:
When a verb occurs as the second word in a sentence,
and is preceded by such words as it, that, what, where,
here, and the like, such a verb is usually employed in
the singular number, irrespective of the number of
the substantive which follows it. Examples of such
usage are common from the ninth century onwards.
[Cited on p. 147 of Furness' edition of Twelfth Night.]
The practice of Shakespeare conforms to this
statement.
.... and there is pansies, that's for thoughts.
— Hamlet, IV. v. 176-77.
Here comes the townsmen on procession.
—II Henry VI, II. i. 68.
3. Compound subject with singular members. —
Any compound subject made up of singular mem-
bers may take its verb in the singular.
.... when his disguise and he is parted,
—All's Well, III. vi. 112-13.
4. Plural subject with "is," "was," or present
indicative in -s. — In the three preceding cases dif-
ferent kinds of plural subjects have taken verbs
in the singular form. The point now to be brought
out is that a noun or a pronoun that is plural both
in form and meaning is sometimes used in Shake-
speare as the subject of is, or of was, and is very
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 57
often used as the subject of a present indicative
ending in -s. Lounsbury estimates that "there
are more than two hundred" of these -s indicatives
with plural subjects in Shakespeare's plays; he
undoubtedly includes in this estimate the cases
under the last section, but not those with is and
was. There is much falsification of the text here
in modern editions.
Ill deeds is doubled with an evil word
[F^ Neilson; are F2, 3, 4, Cambridge,
Herford].
— Comedy of Errors, III. ii. 20.
Be pitiful to my condemned sons,
Whose souls is not corrupted as 'tis
thought.
[Qq, Fx; are F2, 3, 4, Cambridge, Herford,
Neilson.]
— Titus Andronicus, III. i. 8-9.
Even when their sorrows almost was
forgot.
[Qq, FI( Neilson; were Cambridge,
Herford; sorrow .... was F2, 3, 4.]
— Ibid., V. i. 137.
These high wild hills and rough uneven ways
Draws out our miles, and makes them wearisome.
— Richard II, II. iii. 4-5.
The most inclusive and probable explanation
of this peculiarity is that of Professor C. Alphonso
Smith:
58 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
(1) In is, was, -s, -th, used with plural subjects, we
have not instances of borrowing, but evidence rather
of a tendency on the part of the third indicative singu-
lar . . . . to establish itself as the norm [for all per-
sons and both numbers], and thus to usurp the place
held by the indicative plural.1
That is, in accordance with the general tendency
to drop inflections, the most common form of the
present indicative, the third singular, wras often
extended to cover the entire tense. This explana-
tion finds " abundant illustrations in the popular
speech of to-day."
(2) The usual explanation has been that these
so-called -s plurals of the present indicative arose
from the influence of the northern dialect, in which
the plural of the present indicative regularly ended
in -s, though the ending was dropped under some
circumstances. This usage continues to the present
day in the North of England.2 This explanation,
that of Abbott and Lounsbury,3 leaves the use of
is and was with plural subjects unaccounted for.
The explanation of Smith is highly satisfactory,
1 P. 367 of "Shakespeare's Present Indicative -s
Endings with Plural Subjects," Publications Modem
Language Assoc, XI (1896), pp. 363-76:
2 Wright, Eng. Dialect Grammar (Oxford, 1905), p. 296.
3 Lounsbury, History of the Eng. Language, ed. 1894
pp. 406-14, discusses this point and the next.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 59
but the influence of the northern dialect may well
have been a co-operating force.
5. Plural subject with "doth" or "hath." — The
forms doth and hath are found very frequently with
plural subjects. Modern editions often falsify the
text in these places. In Merchant of Venice, III. ii.
33, since only the First Folio, among the early texts,
has doth, the editors have some justification for
printing do.
.... their encounters, though not personal, hath
been royally attorn eyed . . . . [Fx, Neilson; have F2,
3, 4, Cambridge, Herford]. — Winter's Tale, I. i. 28-30.
Wars hath not wasted it [Qq, Ff, Neilson; have
Cambridge, Herford].
— Richard II, II. i. 252.
By what right does the editor of a scholarly
-dition print have in the line last cited, when the
nine authoritative editions, five Quartos and four
Folios, all show hath? (1) The explanation of
Smith applies fully here. (2) Lounsbury holds
that these forms are due to the influence of the
southern dialect. In Somerset and Devon, present
indicative plurals in -th have not entirely died out
to this day (Wright, p. 296).
6. Plural subject with present indicative in -en
or -n. — So far as I know, there is only one example
in the plays printed as Shakespeare's of the old
present indicative plural in -en or -n, except in the
60 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Gower choruses of Pericles; and these choruses are
usually thought not to have been written by Shake-
speare. These plurals in -en, -n were the regular
form in Chaucer, and survive to this day in the
dialect speech of much of western middle England.
And then the whole quire hold their hips
and laugh,
And waxen in their mirth
— Midsummer-Night's Dream, II. i. 55-56.
He, doing so, put forth to seas,
Where when men been, there's seldom ease;
All perishen of man, of pelf,
— Pericles, Gower chorus preceding Act II, 11. 27-28, 35.
7. Second singular of present indicative in -es'
or -s. — The ending -es or -5 is frequently found in
agreement with thou as a subject; but it is usually
normalized to -est by the editors.
Why even what fashion thou best likes,
Lucetta [likes Ff, Neilson; likest Cam-
bridge, Herford].
-Two Gentlemen of Verona, II. vii. 52.
That thou expects not [Qq, Ff, Neilson;
expect' st Cambridge, Herford]
— Romeo and Juliet, III. v. in.
Fiend, thou torments me [all early texts,
Neilson; torment' st Cambridge, Herford].
— Richard II, IV. i. 270.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 61
Here both the explanations indicated above
under § 4 are available. The form in -es or -s
may be "the dominant third singular" extended
to the second person; or this -es, -s, may have come
in from the northern dialect. The first explana-
tion is the more probable, or, if both influences are
present, at least the more important.
8. Attraction. — It "seems almost to have become
a rule, or, at any rate, a license in Shakespeare's
own time, that a verb shall agree in number with
the nominative intervening between the true
governing noun and the verb." — The Cambridge
Shakespeare, 2d ed., I, p. xv.
How oft the sight of means to do ill deeds
Make deeds ill done!
— King John, IV. ii. 219-20.
The very thought of my revenges that way
Recoil upon me.
— Winter's Tate, II. iii. 19-20.
The venom clamours of a jealous woman
Poisons more deadly than a mad dog's tooth.
— Comedy of Errors, V. i. 69-70.
V. Adjectives and Adverbs
1. Coined adjectives. — An adjective is often
made from another part of speech. This usage
is still common.
62 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Draw them to Tiber banks.
— Julius Caesar, I. i. 63
2. Double comparative or superlative. — A double
comparative of an adjective, or a double superla-
tive is sometimes used.
.... for the more better assurance,
— Midsummer-Night' 's Dream, III. i. 20-21.
.... and we will grace his heels
With the most boldest and best hearts of Rome.
— Julius Caesar, III. i. 120-21.
3. One ending of comparison for different adjec-
tives.— The ending that denotes the comparative
degree, or the superlative, is sometimes given to
only one of two or three adjectives, though serving
for all.
The generous and graves/ citizens.
— Measure for Measure, IV. vi. 13.
4. The transferred epithet. — Shakespeare very
often transfers an adjective to a noun to which
it does not logically apply. Sometimes the adjec-
tive represents what would be an adverb or a noun
in the literal form of the sentence. Occasionally
an adverb has been transferred from an adjective;
this may be called the transferred adverb.
The transferred epithet is common in poetry
at all times; but Shakespeare uses it very freely
and in striking forms.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 63
And every man hence to his idle bed.
— Julius Caesar ; II. i. 117.
To furnish me upon my longing journey.
— Two Gentlemen of Verona, II. vii. 85.
For ere the glass, that now begins to run,
Finish the process of his sandy hour,
— / Henry VI, IV. ii. 35-36.
Held a late court at Dunstable [=lately],
— Henry VIII, IV. i. 27.
What with our help, what with the absent king
[= absence of the king],
— I Henry IV, V. i. 49.
Let me wipe off this honourable dew,
That silverly doth progress on thy cheeks
[=silver dew, that is, silver-bright].
— King John, V. ii. 45-46.
5. Loose use of adjectives. — "The English adjec-
tive .... was formerly apt to form a looser
connection with its substantive than in other
languages, and, instead of expressing a quality
or degree pertaining to the [substantive], to be
employed to limit the extent and sphere of it"
(Schmidt). These adjectives are apt to need special
interpretation. They may sometimes be looked
upon as transferred epithets, and so be brought
under the preceding section.
64 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
With mirth and laughter let old wrinkles
come [the wrinkles of age],
— Merchant of Venice, I. i. 80.
The virgin tribute [= consisting of virgins]
paid by howling Troy
—Ibid., III. ii. 56.
Oppress'd with two weak evils [=that
cause weakness], age and hunger,
— As You Like It, II. vii. 132.
Ere my tongue
Shall wound my honour with such feeble
wrong [= caused by feebleness],
— Richard II, Li. 190-91.
" Hence it comes that sometimes the relation
of the adjective and its noun seems inverted and
confounded." — Schmidt.
.... but if yourself,
Whose aged honour [= honourable age]
cites a virtuous youth,
— All's Well, I. iii. 215-16.
.... in negligent danger [= dangerous
negligence].
— Antony and Cleopatra, III. vi. 81.
6. Double accentuation. — Schmidt has shown it
to be a general rule that two-syllabled adjectives1
and participles which otherwise are accented on
1 Shakespeare-Lexicon (Reimer, Berlin), pp. 1413-15.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 65
the second syllable take the stress on the first
syllable when they precede nouns that accent the
first syllable. Some of the more common words
showing this double accentuation are: adverse,
distinct, exiled, express, extreme, forlorn, humane
(in which the two accentuations have given rise
to different words, humane, human), sincere.
Whilst thou liest warm at home, secure and safe;
— Taming of the Shrew, V. ii. 151.
Upon my secure hour thy uncle stole,
— Hamlet, I. v. 61.
7. The voice of adjectives. — Sometimes an adjec-
tive is active or passive in meaning contrary to
present usage.
.... heaven's cherubim horsed
Upon the sightless [— invisible] couriers of
the air,
— Macbeth, I. vii. 22-23.
As easy mayst thou the intrenchant air
[=that cannot be cut]
With thy keen sword impress as make me
bleed.
— Ibid., V. viii. 9-10.
8. Adjectives in -ed. — See under III, § 9.
9. Adjectives used as nouns. — See under I,
§§ i> 2.
10. Correlative words. — Wrhat are called correla-
tive words are often paired off in a way that is
66 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
contrary to present usage. In the following cases
the first of the two correlatives is either an adjective
or an adverb.
You speak to Casca, and to such a man
That is no fleering tell-tale.
— Julius Caesar, I. iii. 1 16-17.
Yet such extenuation let me beg,
As .... I may ....
Find pardon on my true submission.
-I Henry IV, III. ii. 22-28.
Those arts they have as I
Could put into them.
— Cymbeline, V. v. 338-39.
11. Adjective form as adverb. — The adjective
form is often used without change as an adverb.
These cases arose from the fact that the old adver-
bial ending -e was dropped in pronunciation dur-
ing the fifteenth century. This made each adverb
that had ended in -e identical in form with its
associated adjective. Modern English has a
number of words in which the two parts of speech
still have the same form; and in colloquial and
illiterate use this feature is very prominent.
'Twas pitiful, 'twas wondrous pitiful.
— Othello, I. iii. 161.
I do it more natural.
— Twelfth Night, II. iii. 89.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 67
12. One adverbial ending for different words. —
One adverbial ending in -ly sometimes applies
to two or three different words.
Why do you speak so startingly and rash ?
— Othello, III. iv. 79.
When he demean'd himself rough, rude,
and wildly.
— Comedy of Errors, V. i. 88.
13. Double negative. — Shakespeare frequently
employs two or even more negatives, contrary
to the best modern usage. Vulgar English still
shows these redundant negatives.
And that [heart] no woman has; nor never
none
Shall mistress be of it, save I alone.
—Twelfth Night, III. i. 171-72.
14. Concealed double negative. — Shakespeare has
some single words and some passages in which
the doubling of the negation is more or less con-
cealed, and has no effect upon the meaning. This
feature takes subtle forms; and some of the passages
concerned have puzzled the commentators. Exam-
ples of single words in which a negative prefix has
no force are: disannul = annul, dissever = sever.
Unloose (= loose) is still common.
First he denied you had in him no right.
— Comedy of Errors, IV. ii. 7
68 QUESTIONS OX SHAKESPEARE
I beseech you, let his lack of years be no impediment
to let him lack a reverend estimation.
— Merchant of Venice, IV. i. 161-63.
VI. Conjunctions and Prepositions
1. Each simple conjunction had broader meaning
than now. — In Shakespeare each simple conjunction
covered more ground than at present. " Since that
represents different cases of the relative, it may
mean 'in that' 'for that,'' 'because' {quod), or 'at
which time' (quum)" (Abbott). It was also used
to mean so that. While, whiles, whilst sometimes
had the meaning until. As was often used where
we should now employ as if; this meaning has
been retained in the stereotyped phrase as it were.
For as meaning that, see under V, § 10.
Unsafe the while that [=because] we
Must lave our honours
— Macbeth, III. ii. 32-33.
.... is not this the day
That [=when] Hermia should give answer
of her choice ?
— Midsummer-Night's Dream, IV. i. 139-40.
Albeit I will confess thy father's wealth
Was the first motive ///(// [=jor which] I
woo'd thee, Anne.
— Merry Wives, III. iv. 13-14.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 69
Have you not made an universal shout,
That [=so that] Tiber trembled . . . . ?
— Julius Caesar, I. i. 49-50.
He shall conceal it
Whiles [=until] you are willing it shall
come to note.
— Twelfth Night, IV. iii. 28-29.
To throw away the dearest thing he owed,
As [=as if] 'twere a careless trifle.
— Macbeth, I. iv. 10-11.
2. Conjunctions followed by "that." — Conjunc-
tions which stand alone in modern usage are often
followed by that in Shakespeare. Some phrasal
conjunctions still retain the that, or may do so,
such as considering that, seeing that, provided
{that), now that, except that.
After thai things are set in order here,
We'll follow them
— / Henry VI, II. ii. 32-33.
Because that she as her attendant hath
A lovely boy,
— Midsummer-Night's Dream, II. i. 21-22.
Mark'd you not
How that the guilty kindred of the queen
Look'd pale . . . . ?
— Richard III, II. i. 134-36.
When that my care could not withhold thy
riots,
— // Henry IV, IV. v. 135.
70 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
3. "That" may continue previous conjunction. —
The word that is regularly used simply to continue
the force of a previous conjunction. It may be
called a pro-conjunction.
When he had carried Rome and that we
look'd
For no less spoil than glory,
— Coriolanus, V. vi. 43-44.
If we have entrance, as I hope we shall,
And that we find the slothful watch but weak,
— / Henry VI, III. ii. 6-7.
Since you to non-regardance cast my faith,
And that I partly know the instrument
— Twelfth Night, V. i. 124-25.
4. "And" meaning "if." — And with the mean-
ing of if is very common in Shakespeare. Modern
editors constantly change this word to an. An —if
is not very common in the early texts. For exam-
ple, although the eight Quartos and four Folios
all have and in I Henry IV, II. iv. 421 and 462,
the Cambridge, Herford, and Neilson editions print
an in both cases. The Folios have an in —
Ay, my lord, aw't please you.
— Julius Caesar, IV. iii. 258.
5. Each simple preposition had broader meaning
than noii'. — Each of the simple prepositions covered
much more ground in Shakespeare's use than at
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 71
present. Consequently these words are used in
ways that are no longer allowable. Because of the
breadth and the vagueness in the meanings of the
prepositions, Franz notes that the verb repent could
be used with for, in, of, or over. We now use the
stereotyped combination repent of. The narrowing
down of each preposition to a more limited field
has been much helped by the formation of very
many phrasal prepositions, each with a very specific
meaning, such as on account of, with reference to,
by means of, etc.
In the first two sentences cited, modern usage
would exchange the prepositions:
Why, this fellow has banished two ow's daughters,
— King Lear, I. iv. 1 14-15.
How shall I feast him ? what bestow of him ?
— Twelfth Night, III. iv. 2.
.... and is received
Oj the most pious Edward
— Macbeth, III. vi. 26-27.
And, to [=in addition to] that dauntless
temper of his mind,
He hath a wisdom
—Ibid., III. i. 52-53.
How say you by [= about] the French lord, Monsieur
Le Bon ?
— Merchant oj Venice, I. ii. 58-59.
72 QUESTIONS OX SHAKESPEARE
Nay, we will slink away in [= during]
supper-time,
— Ibid., II. iv. i.
6. Doubling of the preposition. — The preposition
sometimes appears twice. This is undoubtedly
due in part to the fact that the word is usually
appropriate in either of the places where it appears.
Because of the length of the sentence, this repetition
furnishes in some cases a reinforcement that is
helpful to clearness.
Of what kind should this cock come of?
— As You Like It, II. vii. 90.
But on us both did haggish age steal on
—All's Well, I. ii. 29.
.... in all shapes that man goes up and down
in from fourscore to thirteen, this spirit walks in.
— Timon of Athens, II. ii. 1 19-21.
VII. Peeuliar Constructions. Ellipsis. Word-Order
1. Mixture of constructions. — Two different
wavs of saying the same thing, or nearly the same
thing, are sometimes blended in an illogical third
form. Shakespeare was a fluent and powerful
writer, but not a yery careful one; and the language
was still yery free in fashioning new phrases and
idioms. Naturally, therefore, his plays show-
many blendings of the kind just indicated.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 73
.... you and [that] those poor number [people]
saved with you
— Twelfth Night, I. ii. 10.
I [received] heard no letter [news] from my
master
— Cymbeline, IV. iii. 36.
A mixture of constructions has sometimes become
accepted as good usage. This is true of Antony's
expression, " Friends am / with you all" {Julius
Caesar, III. i. 220). "A friend am I with you all"
has been blended with "Friends are we all."
Shakespeare sometimes shows by the preposition
used with a verb that he is thinking of another
verb with a somewhat similar meaning.
I rather will suspect the sun with cold
Than thee with wantonness [suspect ....
of is blended with charge .... with].
— Merry Wives, IV. iv. 7-8.
[At] To Milan let me hear [send me word]
from thee by letters
— Two Gentlemen of Verona, I. i. 57.
Blendings in connection with a superlative form,
or idea, are common in Shakespeare, and, indeed,
are frequent today. Good usage allows us at
present to employ the illogical expression, "You,
of all others ("above all others" blended with "0/all
men") ought not to complain." Expressions like
the following, however, illustrate a very common
74 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
mistake: "the most interesting novel of all that
has appeared this year" (of all that have blended
with that has).
This is the greatest error of all the rest
[greatest . . . of all blended with greater
.... than all the rest].
— Midsummer-Night' 's Dream, V. i. 250.
We have already noted, at the close of II, § 17,
a type of blending in which whom is concerned.
2. Respective constructions. —
There is a construction of language much affected
by writers of the Shakespearian era, which may be
characterized as a respective construction; that is, a
series of phrasal adverbs qualifies, respectively, a series
of adjectives; a series of adjectives qualifies, respec-
tively, a series of nouns; a series of verbs is governed,
respectively, by a series of subject-nouns; a series of
object-nouns complements, respectively, a series of
verbs; a series of subject-nouns or object-nouns
governs, respectively, a series of nouns in the genitive
case; a relative pronoun, representing two or more
antecedents, governs verbs referring, respectively, to
those antecedents; etc.1
Speak then to me, who neither beg nor fear
1 2
Your favours nor your hate.
1 2
— Macbeth, I. iii. 60-61.
1 Corson, Introduction to Shakespeare (Heath), p. 374.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 75
.... though I with death and with
i
Reward did threaten and encourage him,
21 2
Not doing't and [it] being done.
I 2
— Winter's Tale, III. ii. 164-66.
Professor Jevons said of Antony and Cleopatra,
III. ii. 16-18: " Shakespeare has united six sub-
jects and six predicates, or verbs, so that there are,
strictly speaking, six times six or thirty-six proposi-
tions."1 The sentence is a respective construction,
and there are but six propositions in all.
Sometimes, either for the sake of rhythm or
from carelessness, the second series of expressions
fails to keep the same order as the first.
.... if knife, drugs, serpents, have
1 2 3
Edge, sting, or operation, I am safe.
1 3 2
— Antony and Cleopatra, IV. xv. 25-26.
3. Anticipation. — The rhetorical license of pro-
lepsis, or anticipation, is present whenever we have
"an effect to be produced represented as already
produced, by the insertion of an epithet" (Schmidt).
A somewhat similar usage is to speak of an ima-
1 Lessons in Logic, ed. of 1876 (Macmillrn), p. 90.
76 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
gined or predicted future condition as already
present.
Ere humane statute purged the gentle
weal [that is, purged the commonweal
and so made it gentle].
— Macbeth, III. iv. 76.
Upon them! Victory sits on our helms.
— Richard III, V. iii. 351.
4. Double object, person plus a clause. — See III,
§5-
5. Ellipsis. — Abbott declares that "the Eliza-
bethan authors objected to scarcely any ellipsis,
provided the deficiency could be easily supplied
from the context" (p. 279). These words are true
of Shakespeare in a special degree. This peculiar-
ity increased as he grew older; and some passages
in his later plays are most daringly elliptical. We
have spoken of Shakespeare's frequent use of the
transferred epithet. Some examples of this are
highly elliptical; for example, the last one that
was cited under V, § 4.
Schmidt points out that Shakespeare regularly
omits that of and those of in expressions like the
following:
Whose veins bound richer blood than
[those of] Lady Blanch ?
— King John, II. i. 431.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 77
Her dowry shall weigh equal with [that of]
a queen.
—Ibid., II. i. 486.
Shakespeare is fond of using a single word with
very large implications, expecting us to let the
word represent a decidedly complex idea, perhaps
an intricate clause. A few examples of these
pregnant, inclusive, elliptically used words will
now be given. I add in each case the explanation
offered in Clarke, The Shakespeare Key (pp. 313,
3*7, 323)-
May one be pardon'd and retain the offence
[=the gain for which the offence was
committed] ?
— Hamlet, III. iii. 56.
.... that you might
The better arm you to the sudden time
[=time of sudden changes that will take
place in affairs after the king's death],
— King John, V. vi. 25-26.
All by the name of dogs: the valued file
Distinguishes the swift, the slow, the
subtle [=the file or list where dogs
valuable for particular qualities are
entered: including also the meaning
of the file in which dogs have their
several qualities valued, described,
and specially stated: thus using the
78 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
word valued so as to combine its
senses of esteemed and estimated],
— Macbeth, III. i. 95-96.
The two following passages are notable for their
daring omissions:
O, think on that;
And mercy then will breathe within your
lips,
Like [the breath of life in the lips of] man
new made [=the new-born child, or,
the freshly created Adam].
— Measure for Measure, II. ii. 77-79.
She hath all courtly parts more exquisite
Than lady, ladies, woman [=than any
lady has; than all other ladies can
show; than is otherwise possible to
the nature of woman].
— Cymbeline, III. v. 71-72.
6. Word-order. — An adjective that precedes its
noun may be qualified by a phrase that follows the
noun.
As a long- parted mother with her child
—Richard II, III. ii. 8.
.... our suffering country
Under a hand accursed!
— Macbeth, III. vi. 48-49.
7. Pronoun separated from antecedent. — See II,
§ 24.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 79
VIII. Etymology. Word-Formation. Changes
of Meaning
1. Words in Latin meaning. — In many cases a
word derived from the Latin has in Shakespeare
a meaning which is nearer to its Latin value than
that which attaches to it in modern usage. Hal-
lam makes this comment:
I must venture to think that Shakespeare possessed
rather more acquaintance with the Latin language
than many believe. The phrases, unintelligible and
improper, except in the sense of their primitive roots,
which occur so copiously in his plays, seem to be unac-
countable on the supposition of absolute ignorance.
[Cited in Furness' ed. of A Midsummer --Night's Dream,
P- 303]
The extravagant and erring spirit hies
To his confine.
— Hamlet, Li. 154-55.
[Rivers] have overborne their continents.
— Midsummer- Nights Dream, II. i. 92.
2. Suffix with irregular force. — A suffix is often
used with what is to us an irregular force. The
participles spoken of under III, § 9, and many of
the adjectives described under V, § 7, might be
cited here. The modern word comfortable (=com-
forting) shows the survival of the suffix -able in
an irregular force.
80 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
This is a slight immeritable [=unmeriting,
undeserving] man,
— Julius Caesar, IV. i. 12.
Nor [stain] the insuppressive [=insup-
pressible] mettle of our spirits,
— Ibid., II. i. 134.
3. Words with better meaning than now. — Many
words, regularly or occasionally, have a better,
that is a pleasanter, meaning in Shakespeare than
now.
Tell me in sadness, who is that you love.
— Romeo and Juliet, I. i. 205.
Like valour's minion carved out his
passage
— Macbeth, I. ii. 19.
4. Words with worse meaning than now. — Many
words have regularly a worse, or less pleasant
meaning in Shakespeare than now. Sometimes
a word expressing an unpleasant idea is simply
stronger, more intense, in Shakespeare than at
present.
Since you are strangers and come here
by chance,
We'll not be nice: take hands.
— Love's Labour's Lost, V. ii. 218-19.
I was advertised their great general slept,
Whilst emulation in the army crept.
— T'roilus and Cressida, II. ii. 211-12.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 81
Against the Capitol I met a lion,
Who glared upon me, and went surly by,
Without annoying me.
— Julius Caesar, I. iii. 20-22.
5. Other changes of meaning. — There have
been many interesting changes in the meanings of
words since Shakespeare's day outside of those
under the last two sections. Mere is with Shake-
speare an intensifying word; with us it is a mini-
mizing word. Ecstasy applies in Shakespeare
to any kind of transport, or being beside one-
self; when specialized it usually signifies madness,
but has its present meaning in Merchant of Venice,
III. ii. 1 12.
Engaged my friend to his mere enemy,
— Merchant of Venice, III. ii. 265.
Mark how he trembles in his ecstasy!
— Comedy of Errors, IV. iv. 54.
Discover where thy mistress is at once,
At the next word.
— Cymbeline, III. v. 95-96.
The common auxiliary verbs are often used by
Shakespeare nearer to their original force than in
present English. May expressed originally the
idea of power, might; can meant, primarily, to
know how, to have knowledge or skill — in Shake-
speare it is often a verb of complete predication;
82 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
shall had the fundamental meaning of duty or
necessity; will signified willing, purposing.
.... they can well on horseback.
— Hamlet, IV. vii. 85.
For certain friends that are both his and mine,
Whose loves I may not drop, but wail his fall
Who I myself struck down.
— Macbeth, III. i. 121-23.
IX. A Few Topics That Involve Subject-M alter
1 . Elizabethan coloring. — Elizabethan dress, cus-
toms, inventions, and modes of life are freely trans-
ferred to plays which have their scene laid in
foreign countries or in early times. Shakespeare
did not hesitate to commit any anachronism that
was not likely to trouble his hearers.
.... he [Caesar] plucked me ope his doublet
— Julius Caesar, I. ii. 267.
The clock hath stricken three.
Ibid., II. i. 192.
To beg of Hob and Dick,
— Coriolanus, II. iii. 123.
If you deny it, let the danger light
Upon your charter and your city's freedom.
[Venice is thought of as an English city,
having a charter from the king.]
— Merchant oj Venice, IV. i. 38-39.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 83
2. Former theories and beliefs. — Shakespeare
has many references to scientific theories and
popular superstitions that are now abandoned.
The conceptions of astrology and the Ptolemaic
astronomy explain many passages. The word
influence always has some reference to its astro-
logical meaning. Except in Timon of Athens,
I. i. 66, the word sphere always refers to the Ptole-
maic spheres. Every sigh was believed to consume
a drop of blood, etc.
By each particular star in heaven and
By all their influences,
— Winter's Tale, I. ii. 425-26.
.... you would lift the moon out of her sphere,
— Tempest, II. i. 183.
With sighs of love, that costs the fresh
blood dear.
— Midsummer-Night^ s Dream, III. ii. 97.
3. Legal and musical terms. — Shakespeare is
especially ready and accurate in his use of the
technical terms of law and of music. Hamlet,
V. i. 106-21, where Hamlet imagines that he has
in his hand the skull of a lawyer, is a good example
of Shakespeare's legal lore. Twelfth Night begins
with an appreciative description of music. In
II. iii. the jesting abounds in musical terms, and
the plot turns on some untimely singing. II. iv.
moves in an atmosphere of song. The whole play
84 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
is saturated with music, until it ends with a song
of the Clown.
4. Outdoor sport. — Shakespeare is exceptionally
full of very exact references to outdoor sport,
especially to falconry, the hunting of the deer, and
horsemanship. The author of the best book on
the subject (Madden, The Diary of Master William
Silence, Longmans) expresses his " amazement
at Shakespeare's knowledge of the most intimate
secrets of woodcraft and falconry, and, above all,
of the nature and disposition of the horse. In
his use of this knowledge for the illustration of
human character, thought, and action," says
Madden, " Shakespeare stands alone" (p. vi).
These growing feathers pluck'd from
Caesar's wing,
Will make him fly an ordinary pitch,
Who else would soar above the view of
men,
And keep us all in servile fearfulness.
— Julius Caesar, I. i. 77-80.
5. Description of nature. — Shakespeare describes
natural scenery, natural objects, and animals with
great vividness and power.
Under an oak whose antique root peeps
out
Upon the brook that brawls along this
wood.
—As You Like It, II. i. 31-32.
SHAKESPEARE'S LANGUAGE 85
.... daffodils,
That come before the swallow dares, and
take
The winds of March with beauty;
— Winter's Tale, IV. iv. 118-20.
6. Fabulous natural history. — In contrast with
the last two sections, Shakespeare is full of the
fabulous natural history that was current in his
day. He has many references to fabulous animals,
and to fabulous attributes of real animals. All
that is cited here might be brought under § 2.
I'll slay more gazers than the basilisk.
Ill Henry VI, III. ii. 187
Sweet are the uses of adversity,
Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous,
Wears yet a precious jewel in his head.
— As You Like It, II. i. 12-14.
THE STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE'S
VERSE
THE STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE'S VERSE
The following description of Shakespeare's
verse is based upon Julius Caesar, a play written
at about the middle of his career. A good method
for the student to follow will be to find in any play
that he is studying examples of the various peculiari-
ties noted here, and also to point out any charac-
teristics of the verse that are not here brought out.1
The nature of verse. — The accents of verse come
at regular intervals. In general they mark off
to the ear equal intervals of time, like the accents
in music; but in verse the movement is not so
exact and uniform as in music.
The typical line. — Julius Caesar is written in
what is called blank verse, that is, in verse without
rhyme. The typical line is made up of five meas-
ures, also called feet, each measure having two
syllables. A stress, or accent, falls on the second
syllable of each measure. More briefly: a typical
blank verse line consists of jive two-syllabled meas-
ures, each with an accent on the second syllable.
For example:
These grow | ing feath | ers pluck'd | from
Cae | sar's wing — I. i. 77.
1 Free use has been made of the section on Shakespeare's
verse in the Introduction to the writer's edition of Julias
Caesar, Globe School Book Co., New York.
89
90 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
If we represent an accented syllable by a and an
unaccented one by x, we may represent a typical
line by the formula $xa. The versification of
Julius Caesar is very regular, and the play will be
found to contain a large number of typical lines.
Shifting of the stress. — If all lines were of the
typical character, the verse of a play would be
exceedingly monotonous. One way to avoid
monotony is to allow the stress to fall occasionally
upon the first syllable of a measure instead of the
second. This shifting of the stress is especially
common at the beginning of a line, or immediately
after a natural pause within the line. Examples
are: •
Run to | your houses, fall upon your
knees,
Pray to | the gods to intermit the plague
^ -I. i. 58-59.
Draw them | to Tiber banks, and weep
your tears — I. i. 63.
But nev j er till | to-night, | never | till
now, — I. iii. 9.
The first three of the above lines may be said to
be of the form ax + 4 xa; the last one is plainly
3 xa-\-ax-\-xa.
One advantage of this shifting of the stress, as
has been pointed out, is the avoiding of monotony.
But lines of this kind are especially effective when
SHAKESPEARE'S VERSE 91
the word that receives the irregular, or shifted
accent is decidedly emphatic. The energy given
to the first two lines cited above, by having them
begin with a blow of the voice, and the emphasis
thus put upon the ideas "Run" and "Pray," are
very effective.
Degrees of stress. Measures with no stress. —
There are various degrees of stress, or accent, but
if one of the syllables of the measure receives more
stress than the other, that syllable is felt to be
stressed, even though the accent is really a very
light one. In some cases it seems correct to say
that a measure has no stress. This means that
both syllables are very light, and are equally light.
It is often hard to say whether a measure should
be interpreted as unstressed or as slightly stressed;
sometimes it seems fitting to read a line either way.
Perhaps the first two of the measures italicized
below may be said to have no stress; the others
are somewhat doubtful, but they seem to be lightly
stressed:
To be I exalt | ed with | the threatening
clouds: — I. iii. 8.
Either | there is \ a civil strife in heaven,
Or else the world, too sauc | y with | the
gods,
Incenses them to send destruc | tion. —
I. iii. 11-13.
92 QUESTIONS OX SHAKESPEARE
Measures with two stresses. — Some measures
seem to have two stresses. One of these is usually
stronger than the other; or, if both are substan-
tially equal, the voice naturally follows the habit
of the verse and slightly increases the second stress.
Ride, ride. | Messala, ride, and give these
bills— V. ii. i.
A measure with two stresses is decidedly heavy,
and is often followed or preceded by a measure that
is very light, as in this case:
That her | wide walls | encom | pass'd but |
one man ? — I. ii. 155.
The following line is peculiar in that three of its
measures, and perhaps four, may be said to have
each two distinct stresses:
Why, now, | blow wind, | swell bil | low,
and I swim bark ! — V. i. 67.
Is it not true that the great weight of this line is
felt to symbolize the gravity of the decision just
made, and the sternness and importance of the
battle that is now to begin ?
Measures of three syllables give variety to the
movement.
A sooth I saver bids | you beware | the
ides I of March. — I. ii. 19.
SHAKESPEARE'S VERSE 93
In the following case the three-syllabled feet
seem to represent a hurried utterance :
Let me see, | let me see; | is not | the leaf |
turn'd down ? — IV. iii. 273.
A very heavy three-syllabled foot occurs in the
line,
We'll along I ourselves, and meet them at
Philippi — IV. iii. 225.
Measures apparently of one syllable. — Occasion-
ally a measure seems to consist of a single syllable.
In some of these cases a syllable is concerned that,
as pronounced at the present day, hovers between
one syllable and two, and we may be confident
that Shakespeare had in mind the two-syllabled
pronunciation. Some words that contain an r
fall most plainly under this class.
I have I an hou | r's talk | in store | for
you. — II. ii. 121.
As fi I re drives | out fire, | so pit | y pity.
—III. i. 171.
The double use of fire in the last line is especially
noticeable.
And with | the brands | fire | the trai |
tors' houses. — III. ii. 260.
The word means seems to be prolonged to take
the time of two syllables in the following line of
four measures:
94 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Our best friends made, our means
stretch'd; — IV. i. 44.
There may be some error in the text here.
The line,
"Speak, strike, redress!" Am I en-
treated?— II. i. 55.
admits of several interpretations. One is that the
first two words are to be prolonged in speaking,
so that each shall occupy the time of an entire
measure; a second is that the unaccented syllable
is wanting in each of the first two measures, being
replaced by a pause. Since a pause of this kind
counts in the movement of the line, it has been
termed a " silent syllable." But measures that
seem to have only one syllable are less common
in Shakespeare than lines containing only four
measures. I therefore prefer to look upon the
line as one of four measures.
End-stopt lines. Run-on lines. — A five-accent
line in Julius Caesar usually has a natural pause at
the end. This is often indicated by a comma, or
some other mark of punctuation, but not always.
Such a line is called an end-stopt line. Often,
however, the line of verse has no natural pause
at the end; in reading aloud the voice runs right
on to the next line, without making any break.
Such a line is a run-on line. There is no sharp
division separating these two kinds of lines. In
SHAKESPEARE'S VERSE 95
doubtful cases, one man will consider a line end-
stopt that another will call run-on; but in a broad
way the distinction is very clear. The following
passage contains both kinds of lines:
I cannot tell what you and other men
Think of this life; but, for my single self,
I had as lief not be as live to be
In awe of such a thing as I myself.
I was born free as Caesar; so were you:
We both have fed as well, and we can both
Endure the winter's cold as well as he.
—I. ii. 93-99.
Double endings. — Shakespeare often varies the
movement of his verse by adding an extra syllable
at the end of the line; for example:
The live- | long day, | with pa | tient ex |
pecta I tion, — I. i. 46.
Lines of this kind are spoken of as having
double endings. In some cases, two light extra
syllables seem to be allowed at the end of the line,
giving a triple ending, though such lines can be
looked upon as having six measures. Lines of
this kind which end with the name Antony are
especially numerous.
Popil I ius Le | na speaks | not of | our
pur I poses. — III. i. 23.
But here | comes Ant | ony. | Welcome, |
Mark Ant | ony.— III. i. 147.
96 QUESTIONS OX SHAKESPEARE
Extra mid-syllables. — Extra syllables also occur
in connection with an important pause in the line.
These are called extra mid-syllables. In his earliest
plays Shakespeare rarely made use of lines of this
type. Examples from Julius Casar are:
That touch | es Cae | sar near | er: read
it, | great Cae | sar. — III. i. 7.
He is I not doubt | ed. A vvord, | Lucil |
ius. — IV. ii. 13.
Mid-stopt speeches. — In scene iv of Act II of
Julius Caesar there are nine speeches which are
longer than a single line. Three of these come to
a close in the middle of a line; in the case of two
of them, the next speech begins by completing the
unfinished line. A speech which ends thus in
the middle of a line is called a mid-stopt speech.
Alexandrines. — Occasionally we find lines con-
sisting of six measures. Such a line is called an
alexandrine.
The old ] Anchi | ses bear, | so from | the
waves I of Ti | ber — I. ii. 114.
And these does she apply for warnings
and portents — II. ii. 79.
SJiort lines containing one, two, three, or four
measures are occasionally met with. The follow-
ing are examples:
Look. — V. i. 50.
Begone! — I. i. 57.
SHAKESPEARE'S VERSE 97
I have not slept. — II. i. 62.
Come hither, sirrah. — V. iii. 36.
Unto some monstrous state. — I. iii. 71.
Give me my robe, for I will go. — II. ii. 107.
Words pronounced in two ways. — It is desirable
to distinguish in the printing participles in which
the -ed is pronounced as a separate syllable.
Compare enclosed, V. iii. 28, with enclosed, 1. 8
of the same scene; and answered, IV. i. 47, V. i. 1,
with answered, IV. iii. 78. In most cases, however,
the difference between the full and contracted
pronunciation of a word — or better, between the
clear and the slurred pronunciation — does not
appear in the spelling. The word opinion is used
as four syllables in II. i. 145, as three syllables
in II. i. 92, and elsewhere. Soldier is counted as
three syllables in IV. i. 28, IV. iii. 51, and as two
in IV. iii. 56. Cassius is used freely as either two
or three syllables. Business is three-syllabled
in IV. i. 22, and two-syllabled in V. i. 124. In
the second of these lines it is possible to say that
business is three-syllabled, and that one of the
measures of the line has three syllables. Antony
keeps repeating
Yet Bru | tus says | he was | ambi | tious,
but uses ambition as three-syllabled in the line,
Ambition should be made of sterner stuff.
— III. ii. 97.
98 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Doubtful cases. — We have already seen that the
movement of a line may admit of more than one
interpretation. In the following cases others may
not entirely agree with the readings indicated:
Leave me | with haste. | Luci | us, who's |
that knocks? — II. i. 309.
Lucil I ius, I do you | the like; | and let |
no man — IV. ii. 50.
Let me | tell you, | Cassi | us, you | your-
self— IV. iii. 9.
Rhyme. — Rhyme is somewhat common in Shake-
speare's earlier plays. Later, a rhymed couplet
is often used to mark the close of a scene; but this
occurs only four times in Julius Caesar — at the
close of I. ii., II. iii., V. iii., and V. v. At V. iii.
89-90 and V. v. 50-51, we have rhyme; and these
couplets are logically the close of scenes, though
not so counted. There is very little rhyme in
Julius Caesar, only five of Shakespeare's plays hav-
ing less of it. An interesting case of rhyme occurs
in the speech of the intruding poet, IV. iii. 131-32.
The changes in Shakespeare fs verse. — In the
questions upon some of Shakespeare's maturer
plays, we shall study with care the changes which,
as he grew older, manifested themselves in his
method of writing verse. These are to be set
SHAKESPEARE'S VERSE 99
forth here only in a general way. Attention will
be called to six important features of his serve
in which changes appeared. Figures will be
given concerning all of them. Five of these fea-
tures have already been made clear; the sixth will
now be explained.
Light and weak endings. — In Julius Caesar
the last measure of the line is almost sure to have
upon it a distinct accent. In Shakespeare's latest
plays he feels free to place at the end of the line a
measure that is accented either very slightly or not
at all. It is these line-endings that have been
termed light and weak endings.
The whole body of light and weak endings is
made up of unemphatic pronouns, auxiliaries,
prepositions, conjunctions, and the copula, when
these stand in the place of the last metrical accent.
With the exception of unto and upon, these words
are all one-syllabled. Light endings are words
on which "the voice can to a certain extent dwell,"
while the weak endings are so entirely without
stress that we are forced to run them in pronuncia-
tion and in sense "into the closest connection with
the opening words of the succeeding line." Speci-
men light endings are am, be, can, the auxiliaries
do and has, I, they, them, etc.; the weak endings
are slighter still, such words as and, if, in, of, or.
Professor Ingram reckons the first of the following
ioo QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
lines as having a light ending, and the third line,
a weak ending.
Had I been any god of power, I would
Have sunk the sea within the earth or ere
It should the good ship so have swal-
low'd and
The fraughting souls within her.
— Tempest, I. ii. 10-13.
These endings appear somewhat suddenly in
Shakespeare's latest plays. The largest number
of light endings in any play before Macbeth was
11. Macbeth, a short play, is the first one in which
light endings are freely employed; it has 21, with
2 weak endings. Antony and Cleopatra has 71
light endings and 28 weak endings, and is probably
the first play to use weak endings freely. Corio-
lanus has 44 weak endings, and, as the place of
this play in the succession of Shakespeare's works
is determined solely by the internal evidence cf
style and versification, these figures have excep-
tional interest. According to Ingram, there are
only six plays in the First Folio that have each
more than two weak endings.
The following figures concern what are consid-
ered to be the first three comedies that Shakespeare
wrote; also three comedies written at the middle
of his career, about 1 599-1 600; and finally the
last three plays, also comedies, that are believed
SHAKESPEARE'S VERSE
IOI
to be solely by him. These plays clearly cover
the whole range of his metrical development.
Love 's Labour's Lost. .
The Comedy of Errors
The Two Gentlemen . .
Average
Much Ado
As You Like It.
Twelfth Night.
Average
Cymbeline
The Winter's Tale.
Tempest
Average
41.7
1"
7-7
16.6
18.4
14.2
22.9
25-5
2K .6
24.7
3° -7
32-9
35-4
33
-a °<
10.
5-5
20.7
21 .6
36-3
26.2
85-
87.6
84.5
85-7
62.2
19.4
6-5
29.4
5-2
6-3
13-7
8.4
3-2
of
. I
1 .1
W
o
o
0+
i-7
2.4
3-4
2-5
3-4
3-
2.4
2.9
c a
3
0+
O
O
0 +
0 +
0 +
0 +
4-8
5-5
4.6
5
* That is, more than 18 five-accent lines out of every 100 are run-on.
t Konig excludes from his reckoning prologues, epilogues, plays
wiihin plays, and inserted love-poems. The Time-Chorus of The
Winter's Tale, IV. i., is in rhyme; but it is not reckoned, because it
is a sort of prologue to the second part of the play, and stands
outside the play proper.
It is by no means certain in advance that any
particular poet will develop uniformly, and alonjj;
a definite path, in the style of his versification.
There is no necessary reason why he should.
102 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Shakespeare, however, seems to have moved very
steadily in one direction.
The figures here given represent in five of the
columns the percentage of the five-accent lines
in the play which show the peculiarity in question.
Under midst opt speeches the figures indicate how
many speeches in the hundred are mid-stopt, out
of all the verse speeches in the play that arc each
more than one line in length.1
There is one unifying principle that appears
in all this development. In all six of the features
indicated, Shakespeare passed from restraint to
freedom, from a traditional bondage to an intelli-
gent, self-expressive liberty.
1 The figures in the first four columns are taken from
Konig's very careful work, Der Vers in Shaksperes Dramen,
Strassburg (1888), pp. 130-34. The percentages of extra
mid-syllables are based upon the statistics given by Fleay
in his paper on "Metrical Tests Applied to Shakespeare,"
printed in Ingleby's Shakespeare the Man and the Book,
Part II (London, 1881). The percentages of light and
weak endings are given by Ingram on p. 450 of his paper,
"On the 'Weak Endings' of Shakspere," Transactions
0} the New Shakspere Soc. (1874), pp. 442-64.
SELECT GENERAL BIBLIOG-
RAPHY
SELECT GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
The information of especial interest to the general
student will be found under Sections III and IV.
The individual bibliography on each play will be
printed at the close of the questions on that play.
Books marked with an asterisk are especially useful
for the general student who is not well acquainted with
many of the plays, unless the nature of the book or of
the comment makes it clear that the work appeals to
the specialist.
The name of the publisher is given instead of the
place of publication whenever, in the judgment of the
compiler, this method seems likely to be more helpful.
The intention has been to print the name as Shake-
speare in all cases except when the author in question
spells it Shakspere, and then to use this latter form.
ios
I. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HELPS
*Lowndes, William Thomas. The Bibliographer's
Manual of English Literature, etc. Revised
... by Henry G. Bohn. Often in six vols.;
pagination is continuous. London, 1857-64.
The section on Shakespeare comes in Vol. IV
and covers pp. 2252-2366.
Bates, Katharine Lee, and Godfrey, Lydia Boker.
English Drama, A Working Basis. Wellesley
College, 1896. Pp. 50-57.
*British Museum Catalogue of Printed Books [concern-
ing] William Shakespeare. London, 1897.
Winchester, C. T. Five Short Courses of Reading
in English Literature. Revised ed. Ginn, 1900.
Pp. 1, 2, 4, 7-1 1. Useful for the general student.
Barton Collection [of the] Boston Public Library,
Catalogue of the. Part I, Shakespeare's WTorks
and Shakespeariana. Boston, 1878-80.
*Rolfe, William J. A Life of William Shakespeare.
D. Estes & Co. [1904]. Chap, xxi: " Bibliog-
raphy." Pp. 49I~5i7-
Katalog der Bibliothek der. deutschen Shakespeare-
Gesellschaft. Weimar, 1909.
Ward, A. W. See under Section IV
Greg, W. W. A List of English Plays Written before
1643 and Printed before 1700. London, 1900, for
the Bibliographical Society. Pp. 94-104.
In Sidney Lee's A Life of William Shakespeare
(revised ed., Macmillan, 1909), chaps, xix, xx, "Bibli-
106
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION I 107
ography" and " Posthumous Reputation," contain
some well-digested bibliographical information. The
treatment is more condensed in the same author's
article on Shakespeare in The Dictionary of National
Biography, London, 1897.
The article on "Shakespeare" in the Ninth Edition
of The Encyclopaedia Britannica is followed by a
valuable classified bibliography.
The annual Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare-
Gesellschajt (Vol. XLV, 1909) reviews the recent works
upon Shakespeare. In the "Zeitschriftenschau" recent
articles in periodicals are summarized and criticized.
This is a most valuable service.
The sixteen volumes of A New Variorum Shake-
speare, edited by Horace Howard Fumess and his
son (H. H. F., Jr.), contain in each case a full bibliog-
raphy of the play concerned. See further under Section
III of this bibliography.
*At the close of the entries in the Index under "Wil-
liam Shakespeare," p. 676 of Vol. II of F. E. Schelling's
Elizabethan Drama (Houghton, 1908), come full
references to that author's admirable "Bibliographical
Essay" in the same volume.
See under Section II concerning A. W. Pollard's
Shakespeare Folios and Quartos.
The "Anhang" to Max Koch's Shakespeare (in
German), Stuttgart [1883], contains a bibliography
that is especially valuable for works in German.
Sonnenschein, Wm. Swan. The Best Books. London,
1894. A useful bibliographical help in many
departments.
io8 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
II. QUARTOS AND FOLIOS. MODERN
REPRODUCTIONS
Detailed information concerning the quarto editions
of the individual plays and poems of Shakespeare can
be found in The Cambridge Shakespeare (see under
Section III). See also the introductions to the separate
volumes of The Shakspere Quarto Facsimiles, enu-
merated below. Mr. A. W. Pollard's valuable work
on the Shakespeare Folios and Quartos (see below)
discusses quartos of the plays only, not of the
poems.
Of the 36 plays in the First Folio of 1623, just one
half, 18, had appeared in quarto editions prior to 1623,
provided that we accept the quarto editions of The First
Part of the Contention betwixt the Two Famous Houses
of York and Lancaster, etc., as imperfect quartos of
77 Henry VI, and those of The True Tragedy of
Richard Duke of York as imperfect quartos of
7/7 Henry VI. Of these 18 plays, 17 appeared in
quarto form during Shakespeare's lifetime; while
Othello was first published in 1622.
The "second issue" of the Third Folio edition of
the plays bears the date 1664. To the 36 plays of the
preceding Folios it adds 7 more. Every one of these
seven was printed before 1623 in a quarto which seemed
to claim Shakespeare as the author; though some of
the title-pages used only the veiled statement "By
W. S." One of these seven plays, Pericles, and this
one only, is generally believed to be in part the work
IO()
no QUESTIONS OX SHAKESPEARE
of Shakespeare, and is reprinted in our modern editions
of the poet.
In order to economize space I have printed in
full-faced type the dates of those quartos which" were
issued in The Shakspere Quarto Facsimiles (London,
1880-89, 43 volumes), under the superintendence of
Dr. F. J. Furnivall. Seventeen of these were published
by W. Griggs, and twenty-three by C. Praetorius. The
introductions are valuable for questions of text.
QUARTO EDITIONS OF SEPARATE PLAYS IX THE FIRST
FOLIO THAT HAD APPEARED BEFORE 1623
i. Titus Andronicus: 1594 (the discover}' of this
quarto was announced in The Athenaeum, Jan-
uary 21, 1905, pp. 9I-92), l600, l6l I.
2. 77 Henry VI {The Contention): 1594, 1600,
1619.
3. Ill Henry VI {The True Tragedy): 1595, 1600,
1619.
4. Romeo and Juliet: 1597 (shorter text), 1599
(longer text), 1609, undated.
5. Richard III: 1597, 1598, 1602, 1605, 1612, 1622.
6. Richard II: 1597, 1598, 1608 (IV. i. 154-318,
first printed in Third Quarto), 1615.
7. Love's Labour's Lost: 1598 (said on title-page
to be "Newly corrected and augmented").
8. / Henry IV: 1598, 1599, 1604, 1608, 1613, 1622.
9. A Midsummer-Night's Dream: 1600 (Fisher),
1600 (Roberts. According to Greg and Pollard
the Roberts quarto was printed in 1619 and falsely
dated. See below).
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION II in
10. The Merchant oj Venice: 1600 (Roberts), 1600
(Heyes). The Cambridge Shakespeare calls the
Roberts Quarto Qx. Greg and Pollard hold
that the Roberts Quarto was printed in 16 19 and
falsely dated.
n. 77 Henry IV: 1600. In some copies III. i. was
accidentally omitted.
12. Henry V: 1600, 1602, 1608. All these quartos
print a shorter text. The longer text appeared
first in the First Folio.
13. Much Ado about Nothing: 1600.
14. The Merry Wives of Windsor: 1602, 1619. Both
quartos print a shorter text. Longer text appeared
in First Folio.
15. Hamlet: 1603 (shorter text), 1604 (longer text),
1605, 1611.
16. King Lear: 1608 (Pide Bull), 1608 (N. Butter.
According to Greg and Pollard, the "N. Butter
quarto" was printed in 16 19 and falsely dated).
17. Troilus and Cressida: 1609. There was but
one edition but some of the copies have one of two
title-pages, and some have the other. See The
Cambridge Shakespeare (2d ed.), VI, vii-x.
18. Othello: 1622.
EARLY QUARTOS OF PERICLES
19. Pericles: 1609, 1609, 161 1, 1619.
QUARTOS OF POEMS BEFORE 1623
Venus and Adonis: 1593, 1594, 1594, i599> [1600?]
1602, 1602, 1617, 1620.
H2 QUESTIONS OX SHAKESPEARE
Lucrccc: 1594, 1598, 1600, 1607, 1616.
The Passionate Pilgrim: 1599, 161 2 (called "the third
edition"). See Part II of present work, p. 186.
Love's Martyr; or Rosalin's Complaint: 1601. This
collection issued by Robert Chester contains
Shakespeare's The Phoenix and the Turtle. See
Part II of the present work, p. 189.
Shakespeare's Sonnets [and A Lover's Complaint]:
1609.
None of Shakespeare's non-dramatic works were
reprinted in any of the Folios.
Thirty-six of The Shakspere Quarto Facsimiles
are indicated above by heavy type. Two copies of
Qr of Richard II are reproduced, the Devonshire and
the Huth copies. Q2 of Othello, 1630, and Q5 of
Richard II, 1634, are also included. The four remain-
ing facsimiles in this series are: Qx of The Troublesome
Reign of King John, Part I, 1591 ; Part II, 1591 ;
Qx of The Famous Victories of Henry V, 1598; Qx of
The Taming of a Shrew, 1594.
Unfortunately The Shakspere Quarto Facsimiles
are not always accurate. See the Preface to Vol. IX
of the second edition of The Cambridge Shakespeare,
1893, pp. xxxvi f. In his introduction to the Devon-
shire Qx of Richard II (p. xv note), Mr. P. A. Daniel
points out that a peculiarity of that text on which he
comments does not appear in the facsimile.
The quarto facsimiles (forty-eight in all) prepared
by E. W. Ashbee under the direction of Halliwell-
Phillipps (London, 1862-71) are very rare.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION II 113
Shakespeare^ 's Poems and Pericles, edited by Sidney
Lee (Clarendon Press, 1905; 1,000 copies printed),
reproduces in facsimile the first quartos of Venus and
Adonis, 1593; Lucrece, 1594; The Passionate Pilgrim,
1599; Shakespeare }s Sonnets, 1609. Each of these has
a separate introduction and bibliography. No explan-
atory matter accompanies the facsimile of Qr of
Pericles, 1609.
THE FOLIOS
The reprint of the First Folio edition of Shakespeare's
plays by Lionel Booth (London, 1864) is very accurate.
It is a page-for-page reproduction.
A Reproduction .... of the First Folio of 1623, by
Photo-Lithography. Under the Superintendence
of H. Staunton, London, 1866.
The First Edition of Shakespeare .... reduced
facsimile from the famous first folio edition of
1623. With an intro. by J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps.
London, 1876.
A Reproduction in Facsimile of the First Folio Edition
1623. With Introduction and Census of Extant
Copies [this last a pamphlet in separate cover]
by Sidney Lee [1,000 copies printed]. Clarendon
Press, 1902. Notes and Additions to the Census,
1906.
"The number of surviving copies [of the First Folio]
exceeds one hundred and eighty, of which one-
third are now in America." "It may be estimated
that the edition numbered 500." (Lee, Life of
114 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Wm. Shakespeare. Macmillan, revised ed. of
1909, PP- 325> 3J7-)
A somewhat full description of the First Folio is
given in W. J. Rolfe's Life of Shakespeare, Boston
[1904], pp. 493-5°6-
The Bankside Shakespeare, 21 vols. Vols. I-XX,
1888-92; Vol. XXI, 1906. New York. Each
of the 19 first quartos of plays indicated above is
printed on opposite pages from the First Folio
text of the same play. Of the two remaining
volumes, one prints the first quarto of The Trouble-
some Reign of King John, 159 1, on opposite pages
from the First Folio text of Shakespeare's King
John. The other prints in the same way The
Taming of a Shrew, 1594, and Shakespeare's
The Taming of the Shrew in the First Folio text.
The "First Folio" Shakespeare, edited by (Miss)
Charlotte Porter and (Miss) Helen A. Clarke (see Sec-
tion III), Crowell & Co., is destined to be the most
widely available reprint of the First Folio.
The [First Folio] Edition of 1623. Faithfully Repro-
duced in Facsimile. Methuen & Co., 1909.
The [Second Folio] Edition of 1632. Faithfully Repro-
duced in Facsimile. Methuen & Co., 1909.
In Englische Studien, XXX, 1-20, Professor C.
Alphonso Smith discusses "The Chief Difference
between the First and Second Folios of Shakespeare."
He tells us that "the vast majority of the changes made
[in the Second Folio] are to be found in the concord of
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION II 115
subject and predicate, and especially in the change of
a singular predicate into the plural." E.g., "My
bones beares witnesse," Comedy of Errors, IV. iv. 80,
shows the form beare in F2.*
The [Third Folio] Edition of 1664. Faithfully Repro-
duced in Facsimile. Methuen & Co., 1909.
The [Fourth Folio] Edition of 1685. Faithfully Repro-
duced in Facsimile. Methuen & Co., 1909.
Greg, W. W. "On Certain False Dates in Shake-
spearian Quartos." The Library, IX (1908),
*i3-3h 38l~409-
* Pollard, Alfred W. Shakespeare Folios and Quartos:
a Study in the Bibliography of Shakespeare's
Plays, 1594-1685. Methuen & Co., 1909.
Ii6 QUESTION'S ON SHAKESPEARE
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION II 117
III. MODERN EDITIONS
Only the specialist has occasion to use any edition
of Shakespeare that preceded the last complete vari-
orum, the Boswell-Maione edition of 182 1. I will
give in the briefest form the earlier editions (described
by Lowndes; see Section I) which are listed in Dr. H.
H. Furness' new variorum Antony and Cleopatra, 1907.
The dates here given are from Lowndes. Other
editions cited as by these editors are presumably
reprints of the last edition here given. N. Rowe,
1709-10, 1714; A. Pope, 1723-25, 1728; L. Theobald,
1733, 1740; Sir T. Hanmer, 1744-46; W. Warburton,
1747; S. Johnson, 1765; E. Capell [1767-68]; S. John-
son and G. Steevens, 1773, 1778, 1785, 1793 (generally
called "Steevens' own edition"), 1803 (5th ed., revised
by I. Reed, called "Reed's Steevens"), 1813 (6th ed.,
"Reed's Steevens"); J. Rann, 1786-94; E. Malone,
1790. !
A somewhat full description will now be given of
the dozen or more modern editions which seem to the
present writer to be especially useful. Seven of these
are marked with an asterisk as of the highest value
*The Plays and Poems of William Shakespeare ....
[Edited] by the late Edmond Malone. With
a new Glossarial Index [by James Boswell]. 21
1 This list follows Lowndes. Professor I. N. Demmon
sends me the following corrections to Lowndes: Hanmer
1743-44, 2d ed., 1745; Capell [1760-68]; Rann [1786-91].
118
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION III 119
vols. London, 1821. This is the most important
complete edition of Shakespeare for the special
student. It was brought out by James Bos-
well, Malone having died in 1812, and is
known as "the Boswell-Malone Variorum"
or as "Boswell's Malone." The first three
volumes reprint the important prefaces of
the preceding editors, Dr. Farmer's "Essay
on the Learning of Shakespeare," the Lives
of Shakespeare by Rowe and by Malone,
Malone's "Attempt to Ascertain the Chronological
Order of the Plays," his "Historical Account of
the English Stage," and many important docu-
ments. It was Boswell's purpose in this edition,
following Malone's own plan, to insert "all the
notes of [Malone's] predecessors" (Vol. I, p. viii).
No full and systematic record was made of the
various readings of the early texts or of the
emendations of scholars.
by Charles Knight. 8 vols. London, 1838-43.
This was known as the "Pictorial edition." It
contains "several hundred woodcuts." Knight's
"second edition" "with corrections and altera-
tions" appeared in 12 vols., 1842-44, and is known
as the "Library edition." For later editions by
Knight, see Lowndes.
by Richard Grant White. 12 vols. Boston,
1857-66. White's later "Riverside edition" in
6 vols., Boston, 1883, is less valuable than the
earlier and much fuller edition.
*- — by W. G. Clark, W. A. Wright, and J. Glover.
120 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
9 vols. London, 1863-66; second ed. by W. A.
Wright, 1891-93. "The Cambridge Shake-
speare." This edition furnishes the only accurate
and complete record of the various readings of
the early texts, and of the emendations proposed
by scholars. It is indispensable for textual study.
Even the very valuable edition of Miss Porter and
Miss Clarke (see below) credits to Pope some of
the emendations which he took into his second
edition, 1728, from Theobald's Shakespeare
Restored, 1726.
* by Horace Howard Furness. 16 vols, and
still in progress. Philadelphia, 1871 — . The
"New Variorum edition." The great storehouse
of information concerning the plays so far edited.
The following volumes have appeared: (1) Romeo
and Juliet, 187 1; (2) Macbeth, 1873, revised ed.,
I9°3I (3) Hamlet, Vol. I (text and comment),
1877; (4) Hamlet, Vol. II (general topics and
criticism), 1877; (5) King Lear, 1880; (6) Othello,
1886 [beginning with this volume the text printed
is that of the First Folio, which is also reproduced
in the revised ed. of Macbeth, No. 2 above];
(7) The Merchant of Venice, 1888; (8) As You
Like It, 1890; (9) The Tempest, 1892; (10) A
Midsummer-Night's Dream, 1895; (n) The
Winter's Tale, 1898; (12) Much Ado about
Nothing, 1899; (13) Twelfth Night, 1901; (14)
Love's Labour's Lost, 1904; (15) Antony and
Cleopatra, 1907; (16) Richard III, 1908, edited
by Horace Howard Furness, Jr., who also
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION III 121
brought out the revised edition of Macbeth, No.
2 above.
— by W. G. Clark and W. A. Wright. 1 vol.
Macmillan, 1865. Frequently reissued with
changed date. " The Globe edition." The Globe
line-numbers have been accepted as standard.
The print of this edition is too small for general
use.
— by Alexander Dyce. Third edition, 9 vols.
London, 1875. (1st ed., 6 vols., 1857; 2d ed.,
9 vols., 1864-67.)
— by Israel Gollancz. 40 vols. London, 1894-96.
Small, convenient volumes. Also in 12 vols.
"The Temple edition." Has Cambridge text,
Globe line-numbers, and a preface and glossary
for each play.
by C. H. Herford. 10 vols. Macmillan,
1899. "The Eversley edition." Has Globe line-
numbers, large type, valuable introductions, and
brief but helpful footnotes.
by (Misses) Charlotte Porter and Helen A.
Clarke. 28 vols, and still in progress. New York,
1903 — . "The 'First Folio' Shakespeare." This
edition prints in handy form the First Folio text
of each play, inserting in brackets the passages
found in other early texts, and marking in the
same way modern stage-directions and act-and-
scene divisions. The more important emendations
are noted at the foot of the page. Each volume
has an introduction, full discussions and notes, a
glossary, and selected criticisms; each is a well-
122 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
made multum in parco. Of the ten English his-
tories only Henry V has appeared; all the other
plays have been published (February, 1910).
This edition will probably be completed by the
close of 191 1.
* by William Allan Xeilson. 1 vol. Boston,
1906. Should be called "The Neilson edition,"
and not by the name upon the cover. The best
one-volume edition, and the most satisfactory
modernized text of Shakespeare that has yet
been printed. In each play, departures from
and additions to the early text taken as the basis,
and modern stage-directions are bracketed. There
is an adequate glossary. The introductions to
the individual plays are compact statements of the
important facts and of the results of the investi-
gations of scholars.
— by W. J. Craig, Edward Dowden, and others.
32 vols, to be ready by the summer of 19 10; the
others in the near future. Methuen, London, and
Bobbs-Merrill, Indianapolis. Called in England
"The Arden Shakespeare"; in the United States,
"The Dowden Shakespeare." An excellent edi-
tion.
by W. J. Rolfe. 40 vols. 1870-83. Second
edition, 1903-6. The volumes of the old edition
reprint valuable passages from standard critics;
the volumes of the new edition omit these, but are
superior as textbooks. Both editions are now
published by the American Book Co. This is
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION III 123
the best edition, containing all the works, that is
both annotated and expurgated.
The following editions all subsequent to 182 1 deserve
record: S. W. Singer, 10 vols., 1826; 2d ed., 1856;
J. P. Collier, 8 vols., 1842-44; 2d ed., 6 vols., 1858;
H. N. Hudson, 11 vols., 1851-56; 2d ed.. 20 vols.,
1880-81; J. O. Halliwell (later Halliwell-Phillipps),
16 vols, folio, 1853-65; H. Staunton, 3 vols., 1858-60;
N. Delius, 5th ed., 2 vols., Elberfeld, 1882 (notes in
German); N. Delius and F. J. Furnivall, 1 vol., 1877 (see
also under Section IV); Sir Henry Irving and F. A.
Marshall, 8 vols., 1888-90; W. J. Craig, 1 vol., 1894;
F. J. Furnivall, The Old Spelling Shakespeare, to
be completed in 40 vols., Duffield, New York. Four-
teen volumes have already appeared.
124 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION III 125
IV. COMMENTARIES. HISTORIES OF THE
DRAMA. GENERAL WORKS
(See also under Sections V and XII)
With the exception of the work of Bradley, no book
has been marked with the asterisk which does not
comment on substantially all the piays; and no book
is thus marked which is not confined to Shakespeare
as its subject.
Baker, George Pierce. The Development of Shake-
speare as a Dramatist. Macmillan, 1907. The
book points out also Shakespeare's debt to his
predecessors. Particularly useful for the life of
the time. The illustrations are numerous and
valuable.
*Boas, Frederick S. Shakspere and His Predeces-
sors. Scribner, 1896. Full, useful.
*Bradley, A. C. Shakespearean Tragedy: Lectures
on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth.
Macmillan, 2d ed., 1905. The other tragedies
are characterized incidentally. "No such mi-
nutely searching and patiently convincing studies
of Shakespeare are known to me" (William
Archer).
*Brandes, George. William Shakespeare [translated].
Macmillan, 2-vol. ed., 1898; i-vol. ed., 1899.
Very full and interesting. Connects the dramatist
with the life of his age. Indulges in conjecture
somewhat too freely.
126
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION IV 127
*Ten Brink, Bernhard. Five Lectures on Shakespeare
[translated]. Holt, 1895. A stimulating short
survey and interpretation.
Brooke, Stopford A. On Ten Plays of Shakespeare.
New York, 1905. The following plays are con-
sidered: A. M.-N. D., R. and J., Richard II,
Richard III, The M. of V., A. Y. L. It, Macbeth,
Coriolanus, The W. T., The Tempest.
Cambridge History of English Literature, The. Cam-
bridge University Press and Putnams. Vol. V
will treat "The Elizabethan and the Jacobean
Drama."
Carlyle, Thomas. On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and
the Heroic in History. " Lecture III. The Hero
as Poet: Dante; Shakespeare." Excellent edition
of entire work by A. MacMechan. Ginn, 190 1.
Clarke, Charles Cowden. Shakespeare-Characters.
London, 1863. Twenty plays are treated, includ-
ing the better known ones.
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. Lectures and Notes on
Shakspere, etc. Bell (Bohn Library), 1885.
These comments have at times the highest value.
Use the Index.
Corson, Hiram. An Introduction to the Study of
Shakespeare. Heath, 1889.
Courthope, W. J. A History of English Poetry.
Vol. IV. Macmillan, 1903.
Creizenach, Wilhelm. Geschichte des neueren Dramas.
Band IV=Das Englische Drama im Zeitalter
Shakespeares: Erster Teil. [Period covered =
1570—93.] Halle a. S., 1909. Full and reliable.
128 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
*Dowden, Edward. Shakspere. Appleton, New
York, 1879. In series of Literature Primers.
A standard brief introduction to Shakespeare.
*Dowden, Edward. Shakspere .... His Mind and
Art. Harper [188 1]. A standard book that
deserves its high reputation.
Dowden, Edward. ''Shakespeare as a Comic Drama-
tist," pp. 635-61 in Representative English Come-
dies, ed. by C. M. Gayley. Macmillan, 1903.
Elze, Karl. Essays on Shakespeare. London, 1874.
(Tempest, A M.-N. Dream, M. of Venice, AIVs
Well, Henry VIII, Hamlet in France, Supposed
Travels of Sh., etc.)
Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Representative Men. Con-
tains " Shakespeare, the Poet." Boston, 1850.
Fleay, F. G. Shakespeare Manual. Macmillan, 1876.
Acute. Indulges freely in conjecture. Not
for beginners.
Furnivall, Frederick J. Introduction to The Leopold
Shakspere, pp. vii-cxxxvi. London, 188 1. Con-
densed but stimulating.
Furnivall, F. J., and Munro, John. Shakespeare:
Life and Work. London, 1908. A moderate-
priced book that is also an introduction to
Elizabethan life. The story of each play is
outlined.
Gervinus, G. G. Shakespeare Commentaries. Trans<
lated by F. E. Bunnett. London, 1883. Valuable;
the style is somewhat heavy. Contains nearly
one thousand 8vo pages.
Hazlitt, Wm. Characters of Shakespeare's Plays.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION IV 129
Originally appeared in 181 7. Published together
with Lectures on the Literature of the Age of Eliza-
beth as a volume in the Bohn Library, London,
1869.
*Hudson, Henry N. Shakespeare: His Life, Art, and
Characters. 2 vols. Ginn, revised ed., 1882.
Choice criticism. In the essays upon the individ-
ual plays, Hudson is almost wholly concerned with
character-study.
Hugo, Victor. William Shakespeare. Translated by
M. B. Anderson. Chicago, 1887.
Jameson, Mrs. Anna. Shakespeare's Heroines. Bohn
Library, 1879. Also in Everyman's Library,
London and N. Y.
Johnson, Samuel. Johnson on Shakespeare ...
with an Introduction by Walter Raleigh. London,
1908.
Jusserand, J. J. A Literary History of the English
People. [Translated.] Vol. III. Putnams,
1909.
Kreyssig, F. Vorlesungen iiber Shakespeare. 3te
Aufl., 2 Biinde. Berlin, 1877. Excellent.
Lloyd, Wm. Watkiss. Critical Essays on the Plays
of Shakespeare. London, 1875.
Lounsbury, Thomas R. Shakespeare as a Dramatic
Artist. Scribner, 1902. Outlines the various
discussions and opinions concerning Shakespeare's
rank as a dramatic artist, down to the end of the
eighteenth century.
Lowell, James R. " Shakespeare Once More," in
Among My Books, Vol. I. Houghton, 1870.
13° QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Luce, Morton. A Handbook to ... . Shakespeare.
London, 1906.
Martin, Lady [=Helen Faucit]. On Some of Shake-
speare's Female Characters. Blackwood, 1888.
Mezieres, A. Shakespeare, ses ceuvres et ses critiques.
Paris, 1861; 3d ed., 1882.
[Montagu, Mrs. Elizabeth.] An Essay on the Writings
and Genius of Shakespeare, etc. London, 1769.
The interest in this Essay, famous in its day, is
now mainly historical. Fully discussed in T. R.
Lounsbury's Shakespeare and Voltaire, Scribner,
1902.
Morgann, Maurice. An Essay on the Dramatic
Character of Sir John Falstaff. London, 1777.
Reprinted in Eighteenth Century Essays on Shake-
speare, ed. by D. Nichol Smith, pp. 216-303.
Glasgow, 1903. This remarkable essay contains
many illuminating comments upon Shakespeare's
dramatic art.
Moulton, Richard G. Shakespeare as a Dramatic
Artist. 3d ed., Oxford, 1893. The papers upon
*The Merchant of Venice and *The Tempest are
especially full and illuminating. Other plays
treated are: Richard III, Macbeth, Julius Caesar,
King Lear, Othello, L. L. Lost, A. Y. L. It.
Moulton, Richard G. Shakespeare as a Dramatic
Thinker [originally called The Moral System of
Shakespeare]. Macmillan, 1907. A commentary
upon all the plays.
*Raleigh, Walter. Shakespeare (in English Men of
Letters). Macmillan, 1907. This book is pri-
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION IV 131
marily an appreciation of the poet rather than a
biography. It is charming, stimulating, sane.
Richardson, Wm. Essays on Shakespeare's Dramatic
Characters of Richard the Third, King Lear, and
Timon of Athens; with an Essay on the Faults of
Shakespeare, and additional Observations on the
Character of Hamlet. London, 1784; sixth ed.,
1812. Richardson published A Philosophical
Analysis and Illustration of Some of Shakespeare's
Dramatic Characters, Glasgow, 1774; also Essays
on Shakespeare's Dramatic Character of Sir John
Falstaff; and on his Imitation of Female Charac-
ters, London, 1788; reprinted 1789. Richard-
son's three works were collected into a single vol-
ume, Essays on Some of Shakespeare's Dramatic
Characters, etc., London, 1797; reprinted 1798.
Wm. J. Rolfe, in his life of the dramatist (see under
Section V), collects many important critical utterances
concerning the individual plays, and summarizes others.
Schelling, Felix E. The English Chronicle Play.
Macmillan, 1902.
Schelling, Felix E. Elizabethan Drama 1558-1642.
2 vols. Houghton, 1908. Exceptionally valuable.
Consult Index.
Schlegel, August Wilhelm. Lectures on Dramatic
Art and Literature [translated]. In the Bohn
Library. 2d ed., revised, 1892.
Shakespeare Societies. — The Shakespeare Society
of England issued 48 volumes between 184 1 and 1853.
The Transactions oj the New Shakspere Society, Parts
132 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
i to 14, appeared between 1874 and 1892. The
Transactions contain important original articles.
Many oilier publications were brought out by this
society during those years, including reprints of
Shakespeare quartos, of books which served as the
sources of plays, and of other important Elizabethan
productions. The Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakes pear x-
Gesellschajt appears annually; the one for 19 10 is
numbered XLVI. These volumes contain scholarly
articles, usually in German. See also the comment
under Section I.
Sherman, L. A. What Is Shakespeare? Macmillan,
1902. Detailed studies of Cymbeline, The W.
Tale, R. and Juliet, and Macbeth. Questions on
The W. Tale, R. and J., Tw. Night. Chap, vi,
" Shakespeare the Man."
Sievers, E. W. William Shakespeare: Sein Leben
und Dichten. Band I [no more published].
Gotha, 1866.
Smith, D. Nichol, Editor. Eighteenth Century Essays
on Shakespeare. Glasgow, 1903. Contains the
prefaces of the editors of Shakespeare, Rowe's
Life of Shakespeare, etc. With the exception of
Morgann's essay on Falstaff (see above), and
John Dennis, "On the Genius and Writings of
Shakespeare" (1711), these essays are in Vol. I
of the Boswell-Malone Variorum (see under
Section III).
♦Snider, Denton J. The Shakespearian Drama. 3 vols. :
The Comedies, The Histories, The Tragedies.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION IV 133
Sigma Publishing Co., St. Louis. Copyright
1887-89. A large body of good criticism. Mr.
Snider's system, however, sometimes forces him
to take extreme views.
Stoll, Elmer Edgar. " Anachronism in Shakespeare
Criticism," Modern Philology, VII, pp. 557-75
(April, 19 10). "Any meaning put upon [Shake-
speare's works] which bears no relation to his
personality and time is fantastic and illusory;
any which contradicts what we know of these is
by that very fact null and void."
Swinburne, Algernon Charles. A Study of Shake-
speare. 4th ed., London, 1902.
Thorndike, Ashley H. Tragedy. Plough ton, 1908.
Chap, v, "Shakespeare and His Contemporaries";
chap, vi, "Shakespeare."
Ulrici, H. The Dramatic Art of Shakespeare [trans-
lated]. 2 vols. In the Bohn Library, 1876.
Ward, Adolphus Wm. A History of English Dramatic
Literature. 3 vols. Macmillan, 2d revised ed.,
1899. The treatment of Shakespeare comes in
Vols. I and II. The papers on the individual
plays (II, 54-209) serve as guides to the important
literature.
Weiss, J. Wit, Humor, and Shakespeare. Boston,
1876.
*Wendell, Barrett. William Shakspere, a Study in
Elizabethan Literature. Scribner, 1894.
[Whately, Thos.] Remarks on Some of the Characters
of Shakespeare. London, 1785. New ed., with
Preface by Archbishop Whately, 1839.
134 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION IV 135
136 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
V. SHAKESPEARE'S LIFE. SHAKESPEARE
THE MAN. HIS RELATION TO HIS AGE.
THE HISTORY OF HIS REPUTATION
*Lee, Sidney. A Life of Wm. Shakespeare. Mac
millan, 1898. Second ed., revised, 1909 The
standard life. Much space given to Lee's view
of the Sonnets, which marks an extreme. This
new ed. is presumably complete, but Mr. Lee has
complained that the American editions do not
incorporate his additions and corrections with due
promptness. The interesting Preface to the second
edition outlines references to Shakespeare dis-
covered during the last decade.
*Halliwell-Phillipps, J. O. Outlines of the Life of
Shakespeare. 2 vols. Longmans, 10th ed., 1898.
The early documents that concern Shakespeare
are here carefully reprinted, and the results of the
important special investigations of the author are
summarized.
Lambert, D. H., Editor. Cartae Shakespeareanae:
Shakespeare Documents. London, 1904. This is
simply a reprint of the documents and records
concerning Shakespeare.
Rolfe, Wm. J. A Life of Wm. Shakespeare. Boston,
1904. Many quotations from the whole body of
Shakespearean lore increase the value of this book.
Fleay, Frederick G. A Chronicle History of the Life
and Work of Wm. Shakespeare. London, 1886.
i37
138 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
The book is full of interesting hypotheses, but
must be used with care.
Mabie, Hamilton W. Wra. Shakespeare, Poet, Drama-
tist, and Man. Illustrated. Macmillan, 1901.
Elze, Karl. Wm. Shakespeare: A Literary Biography
[translated]. In the Bohn Library, 1888.
White, Richard Grant. Memoirs of the Life of Wm.
Shakespeare, with an Essay toward the Expression
of his Genius, etc. Boston, 1865. Also in Vol. I
of White's ed. of Shakespeare. See under III.
Drake, Nathan. Shakespeare and His Times. 2 vols.
London, 181 7.
Skottowe, Augustine. Life of Shakespeare, etc. 2
vols. London, 1824. "An able performance"
(Lowndes).
Brandl, Alois. Shakspere. Berlin, 1894.
Halleck, Reuben P. "How Shakspere's Senses Were
Trained" is chap, x in The Education of the Cen-
tral Nervous System. Macmillan, 1896.
Rolfe, Wm. J. Shakespeare the Boy. Harpers, 1905.
Topics: "His Native Town, etc."; "His Home
Life"; "At School"; "Games and Sports";
"Holidays, Festivals, Fairs, etc."
Baynes, Thomas S. Shakespeare Studies. Longmans,
1893. Contains the valuable article on Shake-
speare from the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica; also "What Shakespeare Learnt
at School," pp. 147-249.
Watson, Foster. The English Grammar Schools
to 1660: Their Curriculum and Practice. Cam-
bridge University Press, 1909.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION V 139
An excellent article on the schools of Warwickshire,
telling about the masters of the Stratford school, cur-
ricula, etc., is in A History of Warwickshire. Edited
by H. Arthur Doubleday and William Page. 4 vols.
London, n.d. In the series entitled The Victoria
History of the Counties of England.
Bagehot, Walter. " Shakespeare, the Man" (1853).
In Literary Studies, Vol. I, Longmans, 1879. In
Vol. I of Bagehot's Works (5 vols.), Hartford,
U.S.A., 1889.
Smith, Goldwin. Shakespeare, the Man. New York,
1900.
Bradley, A. C. " Shakespeare the Man." In Oxford
Lectures on Poetry, pp. 309-57. Macmillan,
1909.
Stephen, Leslie. "Shakespeare as a Man," National
Review, April, 1901, pp. 220-39 (also in Living
Age for May, and Eclectic for July). *
Morsbach, Lorenz. " Shakespeare als Mensch,"
Jahrbuch XLIV (1908), xiii-xxviii.
Elze, Karl. "Shakespeares Charakter, seine Welt-
und Lebensanschauung," Jahrbuch X, 75-126.
Wallace, Charles Wm. Shakespeare, The Globe, and
Blackfriars. To be published at Stratford-upon-
Avon, presumably in 1910. Professor Wallace
has already printed for private circulation a "por-
tion of a plea at the Common Law in a case set
for trial, February, 1616." The document is
translated and interpreted in the London Times
of October 2 and 4, 1909. This plea gives exa< I
information concerning the ownership of the
140 QUESTIONS OX SHAKESPEARE
Globe and Blackfriars Theaters up to 1616, the
year of Shakespeare's death. Professor Wallace's
article in Harper's Magazine for March, 19 10,
"New Shakespeare Discoveries," gives important
new information about the poet's life in London.
THE HISTORY OF SHAKESPEARE'S REPUTATION
The Shakespeare Allusion Book. Reprints all known
references to Shakespeare and his works before
the close of the seventeenth century. Chron-
ologically arranged. 2 vols. Re-edited by John
Monroe. New York, Dufneld, 19 10. Replaces
the earlier edition published by the New Shakespere
Society, edited by Ingleby, Lucy T. Smith, and
Furnivall.
Smith, D. Nichol. See under Section IV.
Cohn, Albert. Shakespeare in Germany in the Six-
teenth and Seventeenth Centuries. London, 1865.
Lounsbury, Thos. R. Shakespeare as a Dramatic
Artist. Scribner, 1901. Shakespeare and Vol-
taire. Scribner, 1902.
Jusserand, J. J. Shakespeare in France. Illustrated.
London, 1899.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION V 141
142 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
VI. THE LANGUAGE, GRAMMAR, AND
STYLE OF SHAKESPEARE
CONCORDANCES, DICTIONARIES, ETC.
*Bartlett, John. Concordance to Shakespeare. Mac-
millan, 1894. This great work sets aside all
previous concordances. References are to the
lines as numbered in the Globe edition. In each
reference much of the context is cited.
^Schmidt, Alexander. Shakespeare-Lexicon: a Com-
plete Dictionary [to Shakespeare, with a valuable
appendix]. 2 vols. 3d ed., revised by Gregor
Sarrazin. Berlin and New York, 1902.
*Dyce, Alexander. A Glossary to ... . Shakespeare.
Revised by H. Littledale. London and New
York, 1902. Explains and discusses the peculiar
and difficult words and expressions.
The serious student of Shakespeare will find it very
desirable to have access to all three of the above works.
*A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles.
Ed. by J. A. H. Murray and others. To be com-
pleted in 10 volumes. The Clarendon Press,
1884 — . Seven complete volumes and the main
portion of Vol. VIII have appeared. This work
is the principal authority on the history of the
meanings and forms of English words.
Clarke, Charles and Mary Cowden. The Shakespeare
Key, Unlocking the Treasures of His Style
London, 1879.
143
144 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Nares, R. A Glossary .... of Words, Phrases, etc.,
in ... . English Authors, Particularly Shake-
speare and His Contemporaries. A new edition
by Halliwell and Wright. 2 vols. London, 1859.
Copies of later date are reprints of this ed.
Phin, John. The Shakespeare Cyclopaedia and
New Glossary7. With Introduction by Edw.
Dowden. London and N. Y., 1902.
A Pocket Lexicon and Concordance to the Temple
Shakespeare, Macmillan, 1909.
Cunliffe, R. J. A New Shakespearean Dictionary.
Scribner, 1910. Not examined.
Some special works mentioned under Section XV
of this bibliography explain and illustrate certain por-
tions of Shakespeare's vocabulary. See, e.g., the works
of Harting, Phipson, Ellacombe, Madden, there cited.
GRAMMARS, ETC. SHAKESPEARE'S STYLE
*Abbott, E. A. A Shakespearean Grammar. Mac-
millan, 3d ed., 1870.
*Franz, W. Shakespeare-Grammatik. Niemeyer,
Halle a. S., 2te verbesserte Auflage, 1909.
*Franz, W. Die Grundzuge der Sprache Shake-
speares. Berlin, 1902. Both a revision and a
condensation of the first ed. of the preceding
book.
Smith, C. Alphonso. "Shakespeare's Present Indica-
tive 5-Endings with Plural Subjects," Publica-
tions Modern Language Assoc, XI (New Series
iv), 363-76.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION VI 145
Craik, G. L. The English of Shakespeare, Illustrated
by ... . Julius Caesar. Edited from 3d revised
London ed. by W. J. Rolfe. Ginn, 9th ed., 1900.
Kluge, F. "Ueber die Sprache Shakespeares," Jahr-
buch XXVIII, 1-15.
Clarke, Charles and Mary Cowden. See above under
"Dictionaries."
Students of Shakespeare's grammar will find the
following books very useful, though they are not
limited to that field:
Jespersen, Otto. Progress in Language, with Special
Reference to English. London, 1894.
Smith, C. Alphonso. Studies in English Syntax.
Ginn, 1906.
Matzner, Eduard. Englische Grammatik. 3 Bde.
Berlin, 3te Auflage 1880-85.
Wright, W. A. Bible Word-Book. 2d ed., 1884.
Many illustrations from Shakespeare.
THE CHANGES IN SHAKESPEARE'S STYLE
The changes in Shakespeare's style and in his
dramatic handling — his method of managing and
developing a dramatic action — constitute one kind of
evidence concerning the chronological order in which
his plays were probably written. Most of the material
bearing upon the chronology of the plays is placed
under the next head, Section VII. The following
references concern Shakespeare's style:
Spalding, William. A Letter on Shakespeare's Author-
ship of The Two Noble Kinsmen. Edinburgh
and London, 1833. Republished by the New
146 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Shakspere Soc, Series VIII, No. 1, London, 1876.
In describing Shakespeare's style, Spalding is
always thinking of his final style. This final style
is characterized with fulness and effectiveness.
Spedding, James. "On the Several Shares of Shak-
spere and Fletcher in the Play of Henry VIII "
Transactions of the New Shakspere Soc, 1874,
Part I, pp. i*-i8* of Appendix. Reprinted from
the Gentleman's Magazine for August, 1850,
pp. 115-23. Shakespeare's " latest manner" is
well characterized.
Dowden, Edward. In the Primer (see Section IV) the
changes in Shakespeare's style are pointed out,
pp. 36-39. Chap, ii in the same author's Shak-
spere, His Mind and Art (see Section IV) is en-
titled "The Growth of Shakspere's Mind and
Art," pp. 37-83. Note especially pp. 52-55.
Verity, A. W. The Influence of Christopher Marlowe
on Shakespeare's Earlier Style. Cambridge, 1886.
Sarrazin, Gregor. "Wortechos bei Shakespeare,"
Jahrbuch XXXIII, 120-65; XXXIV, 119-69.
Complete lists are given of Shakespeare's dis-
legomena and trislegomena (twice-used words and
thrice-used words).
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION VI 147
148 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
VII. SHAKESPEARE'S VERSE. THE CHRON-
OLOGICAL ORDER OF THE PLAYS. THE
VARIATION BETWEEN VERSE AND
PROSE
GENERAL WORKS ON VERSIFICATION
Abbott, E. A. A Shakespearan Grammar. Mac-
millan, 3d ed., 1870. "Prosody" covers pp. 328-
429. Abbott "is too much enamoured with a
mechanical regularity" (Mayor).
Browne, Geo. H. Notes on Shakspere's Versification.
Pamphlet. Ginn, 1884. Brief but accurate.
Gummere, Francis, B. A Handbook of Poetics. Ginn,
1885.
Lanier, Sidney. The Science of English Verse. Scrib-
ner, 1886. Stimulating and valuable, but not
a complete treatment of verse.
*Mayor, J. B. Chapters on English Metre. Cam-
bridge University Press, 2d ed., revised and en-
larged, 1901. Discusses the various methods of
interpreting English verse.
*Konig, Goswin. Der Vers in Shaksperes Dramen.
Strassburg, 1888. Reliable, scholarly.
Corson, Hiram. A Primer of English Verse. Ginn,
1892. Stimulating and helpful; not a complete
presentation.
Parsons, James C. English Versification. Boston
and N. Y., 2d ed., 1894.
149
150 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Schipper, J. Grundriss der Englischen Metrik.
Braumiiller, Wien und Leipzig, 1895. Full,
historical. For most purposes more useful than
the same author's large 3-volume work: Englische
Metrik, Bonn, 1881-88.
Herford, C. H. "Outline of Shakespeare's Prosody,"
pp. 185-99 and 11-14 in his edition of Richard II,
Heath, 1895. An excellent brief treatment.
*Gayley, Charles M., and Scott, Fred N. An Intro-
duction to the Methods and Materials of Literary
Criticism. Ginn, 1899. Chap, vii, "The Prin-
ciples of Versification," estimates the different
works on versification.
*Alden, Raymond M. English Verse: Specimens
Illustrating Its Principles and History. Holt,
1903. Sane and well balanced.
Bright, Jas. W., and Miller, Raymond D. The Ele-
ments of English Versification. Ginn, 1910.
Not yet examined.
THE CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER OF THE PLAYS
The following books and articles are placed in
chronological sequence, in order to indicate when each
of the important characteristics of Shakespeare's verse
received distinct recognition. The technical terms used
are explained in this book under "The Study of Shake-
speare's Verse." Consult Table of Contents or Index.
In the sixth edition of Thomas Edwards' Canons of
Criticism, 1758, first appeared some notes on Shake-
speare by Richard Roderick. In these it was pointed
out "that there are many more verses in [Henry VIII]
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION VII 151
than in any other [play], which end with a redundant
syllable," a double ending. The remarks of Roderick
"On the Metre of Henry VIII" are reprinted in the
Appendix to the Transactions of the New Shakspere
Soc. for 1874, pp. 66*-68*.
Malone, Edmond. "An Attempt to Ascertain the
Order in Which the Plays of Shakespeare Were
Written." Published in 1778, and in a revised
form in Malone's ed. of 1790. It occupies pp. 288-
468 (see also table on pp. 470-71) of Vol. II of
the Boswell-Malone Variorum of 182 1 (see under
Section III), to which I here refer. Boswell's note
to p. 471 implies that the essay of 182 1 shows
some changes from that of 1790. Malone held
that an abundance of rhyming lines in a play is
probably a mark of early composition (p. 327
note). He also considered The Comedy of Errors,
Love's Labour's Lost, and The Taming of the
Shrew to be early productions, because they show
in places "a kind of doggerel measure" of which
the last four lines of The Shrew are an example
(pp. 340-41).
Knight, Charles. In the 2d ed. of his Shakspere, Vol.
VII (1843; see under Section III), 263, Knight
points out the great abundance of run-on lines in
Henry VIII. He is wrong in saying that this
peculiarity "is not found in any other of Shak-
spere's works."
Spedding, James. "On the Several Shares of Shak-
spere and Fletcher in the Play of Henry VIII "
Appendix to Part I of the Transactions of the
152 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
New Shakspere Soc. for 1874, pp. i*-22*. Re-
printed from the Gentleman's Magazine for
August, 1850, pp. 115-23. Spedding recalls
Roderick's comment of 1758 on the great frequency
of double endings in this play. The passages in
which these are more abundant than in Shake-
speare's other very late plays, Spedding assigns to
Fletcher. In the same year (1850) Ralph Waldo
Emerson in his Representative Men called atten-
tion to the two styles in Henry VIII, one of them
marked by a peculiar " cadence" (see note to
p. 21* of Transactions).
Walker, W. Sidney. Shakespeare's Versification.
.... London, 1854. Walker points out that
run-on lines are especially frequent in Shakespeare's
later plays, and that extra mid-syllables are admis-
sible in these plays, though in the earlier ones
"they scarcely occur at all." This is the first
notice of extra mid-syllables.
[Bathurst, Charles.] Remarks on the Differences in
Shakespeare's Versification in Different Periods.
.... London, 1857.
Bathurst and Craik (1857; see under Section VI)
were the first to recognize clearly what were later called
light and weak endings, and to see that Shakespeare
used these in his latest plays with increasing frequency.
Bathurst points out that the difference between Shake-
speare's earliest and latest styles of verse "is almost as
great .... as can be found between the versification
of two different authors." He made the sound generali-
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION VII 153
zation "that in metre, Shakespeare changed very nearly
regularly and gradually, always in the same direction."
Hertzberg, W. A. B. Einleitung zu Cymbeline. Bd.
XII, Shakespeare's dramatische Werke nach der
Uebersetzung von A. W. Schlegel und L. Tieck.
12 Bande. Berlin and Leipzig, 1867-71. 2te
Aufl., 1897. Statistics were given of the double
endings for seventeen plays. Many of the words
used as weak endings were specified.
Fleay, F. G. "On Metrical Tests as Applied to Dra-
matic Poetry. Part I. Shakspere," Transactions
of the New Shakspere Soc, Part I, 1874, pp. 1-16,
38-39. Mr. Fleay gave statistics of rhymes and
double endings for all the plays. He attached an
excessive value to the decreasing use of rhyme as
a test for determining the order of the plays. See
the remarks of Dr. Furnivall and others, pp. 17-37.
Dr. Furnivall in various places emphasized "the
stopt-line test" (the increasing use of run-on lines)
as the best single metrical test for determining
the succession of the plays.
Ingram, John K. "On the 'Weak Endings' of Shak-
spere, with Some Account of the History of the
Verse-Tests in General," Transactions of the
New Shakspere Soc, 1874, pp. 442-64. A com-
plete and final treatment of the subject of light
and weak endings, with full statistics.
Furnivall, F. J., and Dowden, Edw. "The Order of
Shakspere's Plays" [in tabular form], Transac-
tions of the New Shakspere Soc, 1875-76, Part II,
p. 464. FurnivalPs table appears also in the Intro-
154 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
duction to The Leopold Shakspere, and in the
Introduction to the Eng. translation of Gervinus'
Commentaries. Dowden's appears also in the
Preface to the 3d ed. of Shakspere, His Mind and
Art (see under Section IV).
Stokes, H. P. An Attempt to Determine the Chrono-
logical Order of Shakespeare's Plays. London,
1878.
Dowden's Primer in 1879 (see under Section IV) out-
lined the whole matter of " verse tests" very clearly in
chap, iv, "Evidence of the Chronology of Shakspere's
Writings."
Pulling, F. S. "The 'Speech-Ending' Test Applied
to Twenty of Shakspere's Plays," Transactions
of the New Shakspere Soc, 1877-79, ^art HI
(published 1880), pp. 457-58. The "mid-stopt"
speeches of 20 plays are enumerated and reduced
to percentages.
[Boyle, Robert.] "Report of the Tests Committee of
the St. Petersburg Shakespeare Circle," Englische
Studien, III, 473-503. The subjects of run-on
lines and light and weak endings are discussed
with especial care.
Fleay, F. G. "On Metrical Tests Applied to Shake-
speare," in C. M. Ingleby's Shakespeare, the Man
and the Book, Part II, pp. 50-141. London,
1881. Complete statistics are here given of Shake-
speare's extra mid-syllables.
*Konig, Goswin. Der Vers in Shaksperes Dramen.
Strassburg, 1888. Chap, vii, "Chronologisches,"
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION VII 155
gives the most accurate statistics that we have
concerning Shakespeare's use of rhyme, double
endings, run-on lines, and "mid-stopt" speeches.
The careful discussion of the factors that affect
the run-on quality (enjambement), pp. 97-104,
is noteworthy.
EXTERNAL EVIDENCE CONCERNING THE DATE OF THE
COMPOSITION OF SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS
Under this head I cite three sources of external
evidence, each of which concerns a number of plays.
With one exception, diaries, documents, books, etc.,
which have contributed evidence concerning the date of
the composition of individual plays, are not mentioned,
but each will be cited in the bibliography of the play
concerned.
Meres, Francis. Palladis Tamia: Wits Treasury,
etc. London, 1598. Near the end of this work
is a short sketch entitled "A Comparative Dis-
course of Our English Poets with the Greek, Latin,
and Italian Poets." In this " comparative dis-
course" Shakespeare's name is mentioned nine
times, once as the author of his Sonnets, once as
the author of twelve plays that are named. Eleven
of these we have; the twelfth is the enigmatical
Love's Labour's Won1 (Loue labours wonnc). The
1 For the various theories concerning this play, see in
A. H. Tolman's '/'he Views about Hamlet, etc. (Hough-
ton, 1904), "Shakespeare's 'Love's Labour's Won,'" pp.
243-3 !3-
156 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
entire "comparative discourse," with some pre-
ceding pages, is printed in Shakspere Allusion-
Books, Part I, ed. by Ingleby, New Shakspere
Soc, London, 1874, pp. 151-67; also in the
Shakespeare Allusion Book, 1909 (see under
Section V). The nine passages that mention
Shakespeare are reprinted in Tolman, The Views
about Hamlet, pp. 247, 258-61.
First Quarto editions of separate plays. See under
Section II.
Arber, Edward. A Transcript of the Registers of the
Company of Stationers of London, 1554-1640.
5 vols Privately printed. London and Birming-
ham, 1875-94.
It is very hazardous, in trying to fix the time at which
a play was composed, to rely upon what seem to be
allusions to the play or allusions in the play to other
works or outside happenings. Evidence of this sort
is "partly external and partly internal." Dr. Furness'
account of the various opinions that have been held
concerning the date of composition of Twelfth
Night, and of the supposed allusions that were
offered in support of the different opinions, is
equally amusing and instructive (New Variorum ed.
of Twelfth Night, pp. vii-xi). From the following
work we now know that Twelfth Night was played
on February 2, 1601-2:
Manningham, John, The Diary of. Published by
the Camden Society, 1868.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION VII 157
THE VARIATION BETWEEN VERSE AND PROSE
Delius, N. "Die Prosa in Shakespeares Dramen,"
Jahrbuch V, 227-73. Reprinted in his Abhand-
lungen zu Shakespeare. 2 vols. Berlin, 1889.
Janssen, Vincent Franz. Die Prosa in Shaksperes
Dramen, Erster Teil: Anwendung. Strassburg,
1897.
Sharpe, Henry. "The Prose in Shakspere's Plays,
etc.," Transactions New Shakspere Soc, 1880-86,
pp. 523-62. See also the valuable discussion,
pp. i52*-58*.
Moulton, Richard G. Shakespeare as a Dramatic
Artist. 3d ed., Oxford, 1893, pp. 349~55-
An excellent paragraph on the variation between
verse and prose is to be found on p. 163 of the ed. of
As You Like It by J. C. Smith, Heath, 1895.
Hiiimiwom
158 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION VII 159
r.
VIII. SHAKESPEARE'S TEXT. THE
HISTORY OF THE TEXT
Rowe, the first editor of Shakespeare, based his
edition on the Fourth Folio of 1685, a most unfortunate
choice. The following table shows the text which
each editor took as the basis; it is adapted from
Walder (p. 78. See below) :
FOURTH FOLIO, 1 685.
I
Rowe, 1709 and 1714.
I
Pope, 1725 and 1728.
I
I I I
Theobald, Hanmer, 1 744-46. x Warburton, 1747.
1733 and 1740.
Johnson, 1765.
It was not until 1768 that an edition appeared that
was based throughout on early texts — the First Folio
and early quartos. This was the edition of Edward
Capell in ten volumes. After comparing the authori-
ties, I judge that Theobald corrected the text of Pope by
the use of quartos and the early folios, but that Capell
started with the early texts. I suppose the statement of
Sidney Lee that ''Theobald made the First Folio the
basis of his text" (Life of Shakespeare, ed. of 1909,
p. 332) to be an error.
1 This is the date of Lowndes. Professor Demmon
corrects this to 1743-44.
160
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION VIII 161
GENERAL DISCUSSIONS OF SHAKESPEARE'S TEXT
The Cambridge Shakespeare (1863-66; 2d ed.,
1891-93) has been looked upon as presenting the
generally received text. Neilson's edition (1906),
however, is distinctly more conservative. The editions
of Furness and of Porter and Clarke pay full attention
to questions of text (see under Section III). A gen-
eral account of the treatment of Shakespeare's text
by the different editors is given in Vol. I of The Cam-
bridge Shakespeare (ed. of 1891), pp. xxiv-xliii.
*Lounsbury, Thomas R. The Text of Shakespeare.
Scribner, 1906. An account of the editions of
Pope and Theobald, and of the controversies
between the men.
Walder, Ernest. Shakespearian Criticism, Textual
and Literary, from Dry den to the End of the Eight-
eenth Century. Bradford, England, 1895.
Johnson, Charles F. Shakespeare and His Critics.
Houghton, 1909. A useful book. It attempts
to outline all Shakespearean criticism, textual and
literary. Sometimes inaccurate.
White, Richard Grant. In Vol. I of his edition of
Shakespeare, 1865 (see under Section III), note
the Preface, pp. vii-xxxiv, and the "Historical
Sketch of the Text of Shakespeare," pp. civ-
ccclvi.
*Ingleby, C. M. Shakespeare Hermeneutics, or The
Still Lion. London, 1875.
VanDam, A. P., and Stoffel, C. William Shakespeare,
Prosody and Text. Leyden, 1900. Part II,
162 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
" Criticism of the Text of Shakespeare," is some-
what venturesome and overconfident, but well
deserves attention.
Smith, C. Alphonso. "The Chief Difference between
the First and Second Folios of Shakespeare,"
Englische Studien, XXX, 1-20.
Collins, John Churton. "The Porson of Shake-
spearian Criticism" [=Theobald], Essays and
Studies, London, 1895, pp. 263-315.
DETAILED STUDIES OF SHAKESPEARE'S TEXT
Furness gives a list of 60 emendations in the First
Folio text of Antony and Cleopatra which are accepted
in The Cambridge Shakespeare (New Variorum ed.,
pp. 598-99). The present writer has noted 105
other emendations (principally in the earlier plays)
that are accepted by the conservative Neilson. This
makes a list of 165 emendations that have some claim
to be considered ideally good. The sources of these
are: Theobald, 50; Rowe, 30; Pope, 17; Capell, 17;
Warburton, 8; Hanmer, 8; Thirlby (communicated
through Theobald), 7; Johnson, 6; Heath, 3; Tyrwhitt,
3; Singer, 3; Dyce, 3; Malone, 2; Walker, 2; six
others, 6. Total, 165. Most of these men contributed
their emendations only in their editions of Shakespeare
(see under Section III). But some separate works by
them deserve mention.
*Theobald, Lewis. Shakespeare Restored. London,
1 726. A searching criticism of Pope's Shakespeare,
1st ed., 1725; and the first important piece of
textual criticism on an English author.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION VIII 163
Heath, Benjamin. A Revisal of Shakespeare's Text.
London, 1765.
[Tyrwhitt, Thomas.] Observations and Conjectures
on Some Passages of Shakespeare. London,- 1766.
Capell, Edward. Notes and Various Readings to
Shakespeare. 3 vols. London, 1779-80 (Lowndes).
Professor Denjmon says: " Undated, but [1779-
83]"
Walker, W. S. A Critical Examination of the Text
of Shakespeare. London, i860.
[Edwards, Thomas.] Canons of Criticism. Pub-
lished in London, 1747. First given the above
name in the 3d ed., 1748. [I have followed
Lowndes. Professor Demmon gives 1st ed. as
1748, and 3d ed. 1750.] The posthumous 6th
ed., 1758, and especially the 7th ed., 1765, contain
important additional matter. See under Section
VII. A brilliant, sarcastic attack upon War-
burton's edition of Shakespeare, 1747. Edwards
has been called "the wittiest of all commentators."
1 64 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION VIII 165
IX. SHAKESPEARE'S SOURCES. LITERARY
INFLUENCES AFFECTING HIM
REPRINTS OF SOURCES
*Boswell-Stone, W. G., Editor. Shakspere's
Holinshed. New York and London, 1896. Thir-
teen of Shakespeare's plays are here compared
with Holinshed, which was undoubtedly the im-
mediate source of most of them.
*Shakespeare's Library. 2d ed., 6 vols. Ed. by
W. C. Hazlitt, London, 1875. The editor of the
first edition (1843) was J. P. Collier. The
attempt was made to reprint all the important
sources of the plays, with the exception of Holin-
shed.
*Skeat, W. W. Shakespeare's Plutarch. Macmillan,
1892. Plutarch is the great source of /. Caesar,
A. and Cleopatra, and Coriolanus. A. M.-N.
Dream and Timon have been thought to be indebted
to Plutarch.
Plutarch's Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans
Englished by Sir Thomas North anno 1579
6 vols. London, 1895-96. In the Tudor Trans-
lations. Also in 10 vols, in The Temple Classics,
London, 1898-99.
*Furness, H. H. The volumes of A New Variorum
Shakespeare (sec under Section III) reprint the
important sources and discuss fully questions of
indebtedness.
166
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION IX 167
Painter, Wm. The Palace of Pleasure. Ed. by
Joseph Jacobs. 3 vols. London, 1890 (original
date, 1566-67). One hundred stories from
Latin, Greek, French, and Italian. Shake-
speare's Lucrece, Coriolanus, Titnon, All's Well,
and R. and Juliet "all owe something to
Painter" (S. Lee).
Shakespeare's Ovid. Arthur Golding's Translation
of the Metamorphoses. Ed. by W. H. D. Rouse.
London, 1904.
*The Shakespeare Classics, edited by I. Gollancz.
New York, Duffield. This series is to reprint and
discuss all of Shakespeare's direct sources, except
the matter in Boswell-Stone's Shakespeare's
Holinshed (now also published by Duffield).
$1.00 per vol. The volumes already issued con-
cern A . Y. L. It, W. Tale, R. and Juliet, Taming 0}
the Shrew t A. M.-N. Dream, Lear. Volumes are
announced that concern K. John, Hamlet, Com.
of Errors, M. for Measure; also two volumes of
extracts from North's Plutarch, and a reprint of
The Famous Victories of Henry V.
DISCUSSIONS OF SOURCES AND INFLUENCES
*Anders, H. R. D. Shakespeare's Books. [In Eng-
lish.] Berlin, 1904.
Simrock, Karl. Die Quellen des Shakespeare. 2 Bde.
2te Aufl., Bonn, 1870 (ite Aufl., 1831).
Douce, Francis. Illustrations of Shakespeare, etc.
2 vols., illustrated. London, 1807. New ed.,
1839.
1 68 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Hunter, Joseph. New Illustrations of ... . Shake-
speare. 2 vols. London, 1845.
Ward, A. W. See under Section IV. The discussions
of separate plays (II, 54-209) take up questions
of sources.
*The volumes of The "First Folio" Shakespeare
of Miss Porter and Miss Clarke (see under Section III)
discuss the sources of each play.
*Delius, Nicolaus. Abhandlungen zu Shakespeare.
2 vols. Berlin, 1889. Six articles, each comparing
one of the following plays with its main source,
are reprinted from the Jahrbuch: As You Like
It (Jahrbuch VI), Coriolanus (XI), The Winter's
Tale (XV), Romeo and Juliet (XVI), Julius Caesar
(XVII), All's Well (XXII).
Moorman, F. W. "Shakespeare's History-Plays and
Daniel's 'Civile Wars,' ' Jahrbuch XL, 69-83.
Verity, A. W. The Influence of Christopher Marlowe
on Shakespeare's Earlier Style. Cambridge, 1886.
See in Part II of this work, pp. 36, 108.
For the influence of John Lyly on Shakespeare, see
the Bibliography to Love's Labour's Lost, Part II,
pp. 228-29, a^so PP- 286-87; concerning the influence
of Robert Greene, see Part II, pp. 108-9, 287-88.
Farmer, Richard. "An Essay on the Learning of
Shakespeare," Vol. I of the Boswell-Malone Shake-
speare (see under Section III), pp. 300-366. First
printed in 1767. Important in its time.
Collins, J. Churton. "Shakespeare as a Classical
Scholar," "Shakespeare and Holinshed," and
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION IX 169
"Shakespeare and Montaigne," in Studies in
Shakespeare. London, 1904.
Hooker, Elizabeth R. "The Relation of Shakespeare
to Montaigne," Publications of the Modern Lan-
guage Association, XVII (N. S., X), 312-66.
Thorndike, Ashley H. The Influence of Beaumont
and Fletcher on Shakspere. Worcester, Mass.,
190 1. The view of Thorndike that Philaster
decisively influenced Cymbeline is ably combated
in Schilling's Elizabethan Drama (see Section IV),
II, 199-200, 203-4.
Thorndike, Ashley H. "The Influence of the Court
Masques on the Drama, 1608- 16 15," Publica-
tions of the Modern Language Association, XV
(N. S., VIII), 114-20.
Root, R. K. Classical Mythology in Shakespeare.
Holt, 1903.
170 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION IX 171
X. SHAKESPEARE'S LONDON. THE ELIZA-
BETHAN THEATER AND STAGE.
MODERN ADAPTATIONS. CONTRO-
VERSIES. THE PRIVATE STAGES
*Besant, Sir Walter. London in the Time of the
Tudors. London, 1904. Fully illustrated.
*Wheatley, Henry B. London Past and Present.
3 vols. London, 1891. In dictionary form.
A revision of Peter Cunningham's Handbook of
London: Past and Present. 2 vols. London, 1849.
Wheatley, Henry B. The Story of London. London,
1904.
Ordish, Thos, Fairman. Shakespeare's London. Lon-
don, 1897.
Stephenson, Henry T. Shakspere's London. Holt,
1905.
Ordish, Thos. Fairman. Early London Theatres.
London, 1894.
Stow, John. A Survey of London, 1603. Ed. by
C. L. Kingsford. 2 vols. Oxford, 1908.
Collier, J. P. History of English Dramatic Poetry
to Time of Shakespeare, etc. 3 vols. London,
1879 (1st ed., 1831).
Vol. Ill of the Boswell-M alone Shakespeare (see
under Section III) "remains even yet the best collection
of citations illustrating all the aspects of the Elizabethan
theatre" (Baker).
172
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION X 173
Fleay, F. G. A Chronicle History of the London Stage,
1559-1642. London, 1890. For specialists, Anders
calls for a carefully revised edition, " which will
give its authorities, and state its guesses."
Brandl, A. Einleitung to Vol. I of a new edition of the
Schlegel-Tieck translation of Shakespeare, Leip-
zig, 1897, pp. 125-33. Holds that successive
scenes were often presented alternately upon the
front and back portions of the Elizabethan stage,
the theory of "alternation staging."
Brodmeier, Cecil. Die Shakespeare Biihne nach den
alten Buhnenanweisungen. Weimar, 1904. Applies
in detail to all of Shakespeare's plays the theory
of alternation staging.
I give brief memoranda of a number of articles in
the Jahrbuch on Elizabethan staging, omitting titles:
Genee, XXVI; Kilian, XXVIII, XXXII, XXXVI;
Grube, XXXIV; Bormann, XXXVII; Grabau,
XXXVIII.
Gaedertz, K. T. Zur Kenntnis der altenglischen Biihne.
Bremen, 1888. First publication of the well-known
sketch of the interior of the Swan Theater, from
about 1596. The picture is commented on by
H. B. Wheatley in Transactions New Shakspere
Soc, 1887-92, pp. 215-25, 39^40*.
♦Reynolds, G. F. "Some Principles of Elizabethan
Staging," Modern Philology, II, 581-614; III,
69-97 (I9°5)- Opposes alternation staging as the
sole principle. Suggests three possible forms of
Elizabethan stage: the Swan stage, the corridor
stage, the alcove stage. Holds that incongruous
174 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
staging was permitted, that is, the presence on the
stage of properties needed in some other scene,
but incongruous to the scene in progress.
Reynolds, G. F. "Trees on the Stage of Shakespeare,"
Modern Philology, V (October, 1907), 153-68.
Wegener, Richard. Die Biihneneinrichtung des Shake-
spear'schen Theaters Halle a. S., 1907.
Accepts Swan picture in main; but cuts away part
of rear wall between the two doors, and makes a
room under the gallery that can be opened and
closed by a curtain (Albright).
*Archer, Wm. "The Fortune Theatre, 1600," Jahr-
buch XLIV (1908), 159-66. By pictures Archer
makes clear his proposed reconstruction of this
theater. His stage resembles Reynolds' "alcove
stage."
*Archer, Wm. "The Elizabethan Stage," Quarterly
Review, April, 1908, pp. 442-71.
*Albright, Victor E. The Shaksperian Stage. Co-
lumbia University Press, 1909. Illustrated. Recon-
structs the stage much in the manner of Archer.
Suggestions taken from the so-called Messalina
picture of 1640, considered the most valuable early
picture. Against Reynolds he holds that "incon-
gruity never existed as a principle of ... . Eliza-
bethan staging"; but Albright's conception of
different sedes or "homes," indicated upon the
stage, would easily approximate or even reach
what Reynolds calls "incongruity." Albright
gives full bibliography.
[Wright, James.] "Historia Histrionica: An His-
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION X 175
torical Account of the English Stage .... a
Dialogue of Plays and Players." Originally
published in 1699. In the Hazlitt-Dodsley Col-
lection of Old English Plays, XV, 399-431. Lon-
don, 1876. Also in the 1825 ed. of Dodsley.
Lawrence, W. J. "Some Characteristics of the Eliza-
bethan-Stuart Stage," Englische Studien, XXXII
(1903), 36-51; "A Forgotten Stage Convention-
ality," Anglia, XXVI (1903), 447-60; "Music
in the Elizabethan Theatre," Jahrbuch XLIV
(1908), 36-50; "Title and Locality Boards on the
Pre-Resto ration Stage," Jahrbuch XLV (1909),
146-70.
Baker, George P. Introduction to his edition of A
Midsummer-Night's Dream. Longmans, 1895.
Also chap, ii of The Development of Shakespeare,
etc. (see under Section IV).
Hale, Edw. E., Jr. "The Influence of Theatrical
Conditions on Shakespeare," Modern Philology,
I (June, 1903), 171-92.
Tolman, Albert H. "Shakespeare's Stage and Modern
Adaptations," in The Views about Hamlet and
Other Essays, pp. 115-39. Houghton, 1904.
A simple statement of the theory of alternation
staging. Tells of the "Shakespeare-stage" at
Munchen, and of its successor, the revolving
stage. "Alternation in the Staging of Shake-
speare's Plays," Modern Philology, VI (April,
1909), 517-34. Discusses five places in Shake-
speare which fit in well with the theory of alter-
nation staging.
i 76 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Corbin, John. "Shakespeare and the Plastic Stage,"
Atlantic Monthly, March, 1906, 369-83.
Bradley, A. C. "Shakespeare's Theatre and Audi-
ence," in Oxford Lectures on Poetry, pp. 359-93.
Macmillan, 1909.
Skemp, Arthur R. "Some Characteristics of the
English Stage before the Restoration," Jahr-
buch XLV (1909), 101-25. Skemp offers as
something new the picture of a stage found on the
Messalina title-page (1640). Reynolds repro-
duced this in April, 1905.
Of several discussions of the question how Shake-
speare's plays should now be staged, only the two
following are cited here:
Lee, Sidney. "Shakespeare and the Modern Stage,"
Nineteenth Century, January, 1900 (also in
Eclectic for April). Republished in book of
essays. See under XV, Miscellaneous.
Tree, H. Beerbohm. "The Staging of Shakespeare:
A Defense of the Public Taste," Fortnightly
Review, July, 1900 (also in Eclectic for October).
SOME MODERN ADAPTATIONS OF SHAKESPEARE'S STAGE
Genee, R. Die Entwickelung des scenischen Theaters
und die Buhnenreform in Miinchen. Stuttgart,
1889. Gives a description of the "Shakespeare-
stage" at Miinchen (first used in 1889), also a
picture and a floor-plan.
Von Klarbach, Alfred, Frh. Mensi. "Die Shakespeare-
Biihne im Jahre 1898," Jahrbuch XXXV (1899),
362"75-
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION X 177
Von Possart, E. "Welches System der Scenerie
.... fur die Darstellung .... der Shakespear-
ischen Dramen?" Jahrbuch XXXVII (1901),
xviii-xxxvi. Praises the revolving stage at Miin-
chen, which succeeded the "Shakespeare-stage."
CONTROVERSY AND GOVERNMENT REGULATION
Thompson, Elbert N. S. The Controversy between
the Puritans and the Stage. Holt, 1903. With
Bibliography.
Gildersleeve, Virginia C. Government Regulation
of the Elizabethan Drama. Columbia Univer-
sity Press, New York, 1908. With Bibliography.
THE PRIVATE STAGES, ETC.
Chambers, E. K. Notes on the History of the Revels
Office under the Tudors. London, 1906.
Feuillerat, Albert. Documents Relating to the Office
of the Revels in the Time of Queen Elizabeth.
Louvain, 1908.
Helmholtz-Phelan, Anna Augusta. The Staging of
the Court Drama to 1595. Publications Modern
Language Assoc, XXIV (1909; N. S., XVII),
185-206.
^Wallace, Chas. Wm. The Children of the Chapel
at Blackfriars, 1597-1603. University of Nebraska,
1908. Holds that Queen Elizabeth established
and maintained the Blackfriars Theatre. Throws
new light on Hamlet, II. ii.
178 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION X 179
XI. THE DOUBTFUL PLAYS
Strictly speaking, this class should contain all plays
that have been attributed to Shakespeare and are not
included in the First Folio; but Pericles, alone among
the seven plays added in the Third Folio, is usually
looked upon as having established its place in the
canon.
*Brooke, C. F. Tucker. The Shakespeare Apocrypha.
Oxford, 1908. Reprints the fourteen most impor-
tant of the doubtful plays, with a scholarly intro-
duction and full bibliographies.
Simpson, R. "On Some Plays Attributed to Shak-
spere," Transactions New Shakspere Soc, 1875-
76, pp. 155-80.
Ward, A. W. See under Section IV. Vol. II, pp.
209-45.
Von Vincke, Gisbert Freiherr. "Die zweifelhaften
Stiicke Shakespeare's," Jahrbuch VIII (1873),
368-76. Gives a list of thirty-three plays.
Sachs, R. "Die Shakespeare zugeschriebenen zwei-
felhaften Stiicke," Jahrbuch XXVII (1892),
135-99-
180
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION XI 181
tnjTani iv i f n 1 1 j » 1 1 n n rm n i rrrrn inu
XII. DRAMATIC TECHNIQUE
Alden, Raymond M. "The Decline of Poetic Justice,"
Atlantic Monthly, February, 1910, pp. 260-67.
*Bradley, A. C. Shakespearean Tragedy. Mac-
millan, 2d ed., 1905. Lecture I, "The Substance
of Shakespearean Tragedy"; Lecture II, "Con-
struction in Shakespeare's Tragedies."
Bulthaupt, Heinrich. Dramaturgic des Schauspiels:
Band II, Shakespeare. Leipzig, 7te Aufl., 1902.
Caffin, Chas. H. The Appreciation of the Drama.
New York, 1908.
Fleming, Wm. H. Shakespeare's Plots. Putnams,
1 90 1. Chap, i, "A Drama as a Work of Art";
chap, ii, "A Drama: Its Nature; the Laws of
Its Construction."
*Freytag, Gustav. The Technique of the Drama.
Translated from 6th German ed.; Chicago, 2d
ed., 1896. This translation is very faulty, but
has a full index. (Die Technik des Dramas.
Leipzig, 7te Aufl., 1894.)
Halpin, N. J. The Dramatic Unities of Shakspere.
Dublin, 1850. Reprinted in Transactions New
Shakspere Soc, 1875-76, pp. 388-412. See also
pp. 349-50. Discusses Shakespeare's use of
double-time in his plays. See below under John
Wilson. On this topic, see the Introduction to
J. M. Manly's ed. of Macbeth, Longmans, 1896,
pp. xxvi-xxxii. See also the exceedingly full
182
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION XII 183
treatment of " Dramatic Time" in the Shakespeare
Key of the Cowden Clark es (under Section VI),
pp. 105-283.
Hamilton, Clayton. The Theory of the Theatre, etc.
Holt, 1910. Not yet examined.
*Hennequin, Alfred. The Art of Playwriting. Hough-
ton, 1890. Is concerned entirely with the modern
drama and stage, but is clear and very useful.
Matthews, Brander. A Study of the Drama. Hough-
ton, 1910. Not yet examined.
*Moulton, R. G. Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist.
Oxford, 3d ed., 1893. Part II is a survey of dra-
matic criticism. The papers in Part I upon The
Merchant of Venice and The Tempest throw much
light upon important problems of dramatic con-
struction.
Price, W. T. The Analysis of Play-Construction.
New York, 1908. This larger work sets aside the
same author's The Technique of the Drama.
New York, 1892.
Werner, R. M. "Die Gruppen im Drama," in For-
schungen zur neueren Litteraturgeschichte: Fest-
schrift fur Richard Heinzel. Weimar, 1898,
pp. 7-27.
Wilson, John. His writings on double-time in Shake-
speare's plays are reprinted in abridged form in
Transactions New Shaksperc Soc, 1875-76,
pp. 349-87; also 1877-79, PP- 2i*~4i*. The
papers originally appeared in Blackwood's
Magazine in 1849-50. See above under N. J.
Hal pin.
184 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
*Woodbridge, Elisabeth. The Drama: Its Law and
Its Technique. Holt, 1898. Reviewed by the
present writer in Jahrbuch XXXV, 295-97.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION XII 185
1 86 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
XIII. THE HISTORIES
Courtenay, T. P. Commentaries on the Historical
Plays of Shakespeare. 2 vols. London, 1840.
Wordsworth, Charles. Shakespeare's Historical Plays,
Roman and English: with [Expurgated] Text,
Introductions, and Notes. 3 vols. London,
1883.
Warner, Beverley E. English History in Shakespeare's
Plays. Longmans, 1896.
Schelling, F. E. The English Chronicle Play. Mac-
millan, 1902. See also chap, vi, "The National
Historical Drama," in Vol. I of the same author's
Elizabethan Drama, Houghton, 1908.
Boswell-Stone, W. G. Shakspere's Holinshed. New
York and London, 1896. See under Section IX.
Pater, Walter. "Shakespeare's English Kings," in
Appreciations. Macmillan, 1889.
Simpson, Richard. "The Politics of Shakespeare's
Historical Plays," Transactions New Shakspere
Soc, 1874, pp. 396-441.
Konig, Wilhelm. "Shakespeares Konigsdramen," etc.,
Jahrbuch XII, 228-60.
187
1 88 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
XIV. STRATFORD-ON-AVON AND VICINITY.
SHAKESPEARE'S FAMILY
Wise, J. R. Shakespeare, His Birthplace and Its
Neighborhood. London, 1861.
*Lee, Sidney. Stratford-on-Avon. London, new ed.,
1890.
Williams, Jas. L. Homes and Haunts of Shakespeare.
Am. ed., Scribner, 1894. Superbly illustrated.
Ward, H. Snowden. Shakespeare's Town and Times.
London and New York, 1896. Illustrated.
Popular.
Stopes, Mrs. C. C. Shakespeare's Family. London
and New York, 1901.
Elton, Chas. I. William Shakespeare, His Family
and Friends. London, 1904.
French, G. R. Shakespeareana Genealogica. Lon-
don, 1869. "On the Shakespeare and Arden
families, persons and places in Warwickshire
mentioned by Shakespeare, and characters in the
historical plays" (Rolfe).
180
igo QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
XV. SPECIAL WORKS. THE HISTORY AND
SOCIAL LIFE OF THE PERIOD.
MISCELLANEOUS
SPECIAL
Bucknill, J. C. The Medical Knowledge of Shake-
speare. London, i860. The Mad Folk of Shake-
speare. London and Cambridge, 2d ed., 1867.
The first ed. was entitled The Psychology of
Shakespeare.
Campbell, J. (Lord). Shakespeare's Legal Acquire-
ments. London, 1859.
Daniel, P. A. "A Time-Analysis of the Plots of Shak-
spere's Plays," Transactions New Shakspere Soc,
1877-79. Part II entire. Compare work of John
Wilson and N. J. Halpin under Section XII.
Dyer, T. F. T. The Folk-Lore of Shakespeare. Lon-
don, 1883.
Ellacombe, H. N. Plant-Lore of Shakespeare. Lon-
don, new ed., 1896.
Elson, Louis C. Shakespeare in Music. Boston, 1901.
Furnivall, F. J. "Shakspere's Astronomy," Trans-
actions New Shakspere Soc, 1877-79, PP- 43I_5°-
Go!l, August. Criminal Types in Shakespeare.
[Translated.] London, 1909.
Harting, J. E The Ornithology of Shakespeare.
London 1871.
Hartmann, Sadakichi. Shakespeare in Art. Boston,
190 1.
10.
192 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Heard, F. F. Shakespeare as a Lawyer. Boston,
1883.
Koeppel, E. Studien uber Shakespeare's Wirkung
auf zeitgenossische Dramatiker. Louvain, 1905.
Madden, D. H. The Diary of Master William Silence:
A Study of Shakespeare and of Elizabethan Sport.
Longmans, 1897; new ed., 1907. The second
title indicates the nature of this valuable book.
Naylor, Edward W. Shakespeare and Music. Lon-
don, 1896. See Elson above.
Much information about the musical settings that
have been composed for Shakespeare's songs is given
in Transactions New Shakspere Soc, as follows:
1880-85, Part II, Appendix IV, pp. i9t~33t; 1880-86,
Part III, Appendices V-VII, pp. 35f-67t-
Norris, J. Parker. Portraits of Shakespeare. Phila-
delphia, 1885.
Phipson, Miss Emma. The Animal-Lore of Shake-
speare's Time. London, 1883.
Root, Robert K. Classical Mythology in Shakespeare.
Holt, 1903.
Wordsworth, Charles. On Shakespeare's Knowledge
and Use of the Bible. London, 3d ed., 1880.
THE HISTORY AND SOCIAL LIFE OF THE PERIOD
Creighton, Mandell. The Age of Elizabeth. Scribner,
1876.
Gardiner, Saml. R. The Puritan Revolution: 1603-
1660. Scribner, 1876.
^Gardiner, Saml. R. History of England from the
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION XV 193
Accession of James I to the Outbreak of the Civil
War. 10 vols. Longmans, 2d ed., 1883-84.
*Traill, H. D., Editor. Social England. 6 vols. London,
2d illustrated ed., 1901-4. See Vols. Ill and IV.
Drake, Nathan Shakespeare and His Times. 2 vols.
London, 1817.
Thornbury, G. W. Shakspere's England: or, Sketches
of Our Social History in the Reign of Elizabeth.
2 vols. London, 1856.
Sheavyn, Phoebe A. B. The Literary Profession in
the Elizabethan Age. University Press, Manches-
ter, 1909.
Rye, Wm. B. England as Seen by Foreigners in the
Days of Elizabeth and James the First. London,
1865.
Dekker, Thomas. The Gull's Hornbook [1609].
Edited by R. B. McKerrow. London, 1905.
In The King's Classics.
[Wm.] Harrison's Description of England in Shak-
spere's Youth. Ed. by F. J. Furnivall. Part I,
1877; Part II, 1878; Part III, 1881. These
parts were published for The New Shakspere
Soc, London. Part IV, completing the work,
was published by Chatto, London, 1908. A valu-
able book of selections from Harrison, entitled
Elizabethan England, is published by Scott, Lou
don [1902], at 40 cents.
Robert Laneham's Letter, Describing Part of the
Entertainment to Queen Elizabeth at Kcnilworth,
1575. Ed. by F. J. Furnivall. London and
N. Y., 1907. In the Shakespeare Library.
194 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
The Rogues and Vagabonds of Shakespeare's Youth.
[A reprint of some Elizabethan pamphlets.] Ed.
by Edw. Viles and F. J. Furnivall. London and
N. Y., 1907. In The Shakespeare Library.
THE BACON-SHAKESPEARE QUESTION
Wyman, W. H. Bibliography of the Bacon-Shake-
speare Controversy. Cincinnati, 1884.
Holmes, N. The Authorship of Shakespeare. 2 vols.
New York, 3d ed., 1886. Perhaps the leading
work in favor of Bacon's authorship.
Stopes, Mrs. C. C. The Bacon-Shakespeare Question
Answered. London, 2d ed., enlarged, 1889.
Allen, Charles. Notes on the Bacon-Shakespeare
Question. Houghton, 1900. Discusses also
Shakespeare's knowledge of law.
Marriott, Miss E. Bacon or Shakespeare ? London,
3d ed., 1899.
Greenwood, G. G. The Shakespeare Problem Re-
stated. London, 1908.
Beeching, H. C. Wm. Shakespeare, Player, Playmaker,
and Poet: a Reply to M. Geo. Greenwood, M. P.
London, 2d ed., 1909.
MISCELLANEOUS
Griffiths, L. M. Evenings with Shakspere. Bristol,
1889. A useful book for reading-clubs. Some
valuable statistics have been taken from this book
into Part II of the present work.
Lamb, Charles and Mary. Tales from Shakespeare.
With Introduction by A. Ainger. London, 1879
Black, Wm. Judith Shakespeare. Harper, 1884
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION XV 195
Shakespeare's daughter is here made the heroine
of an interesting and carefully studied novel.
Bennett, John. Master Skylark; a Story of Shak-
spere's Time. N. Y., 1898. "Gives a pleasing
picture of the period."
Collins, J. Churton. Studies in Shakespeare. Placed
here because its range is so wide. Topics: "Shake-
speare as a Classical Scholar"; "Shakespearean
Paradoxes"; "Sophocles and Shakespeare as
.... Ethical Teachers"; "Shakespeare as a
Prose Writer"; "Was Shakespeare a Lawyer"?
"Shakespeare and Holinshed"; "Shakespeare
and Montaigne"; "The Text and Prosody of
Shakespeare"; "The Bacon-Shakespeare Mania."
White, Richard Grant. Studies in Shakespeare.
Houghton, 1891. Topics: "On Reading Shake-
speare"; "The Bacon-Shakespeare Craze";
" Glossaries and Lexicons" ; "Macbeth"; "Ham-
let": "Othello"; " As Y ou Like It" ; "K.Lear."
Lee, Sidney. Shakespeare and the Modern Stage,
with other Essays. London, 1906.
Porter, Miss Charlotte, and Clarke, Miss Helen A.
Shakespeare Study Programmes in the volumes of
Poet-Lore, Boston, as follows: K. John, VIII;
Rich. II, XIII; I Hy. IV, XI; II Ily. IV, XI;
Hy. VIII, XIV; As Y. L. It, IX; A. and Cleo-
patra, XII; Cymbeline, X; Hamlet, III; /.
Caesar, X; L. L. Lost, XIV; K. Lear, X (reprinted,
XVI); Macbeth, II (this developed into a book:
Shakespeare Studies — Macbeth, Am. Book Co.,
1901); A. M.-N. Dream, VIII (reprinted, XV);
196 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Othello, IX; Tempest, VIII (reprinted, XV); Tw.
Night, VIII; W. Tale, IV (reprinted, XIV).
Fleming, Wm. H. How to Study Shakespeare. 4 vols.
New York, 1898, 1899, 1903, 1904. These vol-
umes contain questions for study as follows: I,
Othello, Tw. Night, J. Caesar, M. 0} Venice,
Macbeth, A. M.-N. Dream, Rich. Ill, Tempest;
II, Hamlet, As Y. L. It, K. Lear, Hy. V, R. and
Juliet; III, Much Ado, A. and Cleopatra, K. John,
W. Tale, L. L. Lost; IV, Rich. II, Cymbeline,
I Hy. IV, II Hy. IV, Taming of the Shrew.
Sherman, Lucius A. For his questions on three plays
see under IV; for those on Macbeth, see his edition,
Holt, 1899. Separate pamphlets published by
J. H. Miller, Lincoln, Neb., give questions on
A. and Cleopatra, Cymbeline, Hamlet, J. Caesar,
Othello.
Victor, Wilhelm. A Shakespeare Phonology, etc.
Marburg and London, 1906.
Vietor, Wilhelm. A Shakespeare Reader in the old
Spelling. Marburg and London, 1906.
In Vols. XII (July-December, 1874), XIII (January-
June, 1875), and XVI (July-December, 1876), of
The Architect, London, Edward W. Godwin, F.S.A.,
has published the articles indicated below upon "The
Architecture and Costume of Shakespeare's Plays":1
As You Like It, XIII, 255; Cymbeline, XII, 267;
the Greek plays of Shakespeare, XIII, 270, 284, 298,
1 I am indebted for this list to Miss Durkee, of the
Newberry Library, Chicago.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, SECTION XV 197
328; Hamlet, XII, 224; Henry IV, XII, 331; Henry V,
XII, 349; XVI, 142, 188, 192; Henry VI, XIII, 46,
60, 73; Henry VIII, XIII, 116, 133; King John, XII,
298; King Lear, XII, 281; Love's Labour's Lost, XIII,
255; Macbeth, XII, 281; Measure for Measure, XIII,
224; The Merchant of Venice, XIII, 182, 196; Merry
Wives, XIII, 2; (Me//tf, XIII, 151; Richard II, XII,
314; Richard III, XIII, 87; the Roman plays, XIII,
344, 358, 372; Romeo and Juliet, XII, 252; The Taming
of the Shrew, XIII, 210; The Tempest, XIII, 211;
Twelfth Night, XIII, 240; The Two Gentlemen of
Verona, XIII, 168.
In the same periodical Mr. Wm. Burgess discusses
" Archaeology on the Stage" in XVI, 224 (concerning
Richard III); and in XVI, 238 (concerning Henry V).
198 QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
INDEXES
INDEX I
NOT INCLUDING BIBLIOGRAPHY
Words and phrases from Shakespeare, inflectional endings and
formative suffixes cited by themselves, and all titles, including those
of longer sections of this book, are printed in italics.
Abbott, E. A., 32, 58, 68,
76.
Abstract noun, Adjective
form as, 32.
Abstract noun in plural, 33.
Abstract noun with con-
crete meaning, t>3-
Adjective form as adverb,
66; as substantive, 32.
Adjective separated from
qualifying phrase, 78.
Adjectives and Adverbs, 61-
68.
Adjectives, Coined, 61 ;
different, with a single
ending of comparison,
62; double accentuation
of, 64; in -ed, 52-
loose use of, 63; voice of,
65-
Adverbial ending for dif-
ferent words, One, 67.
Adverbial use of what, 48.
Agreement 0} verb and
subject, 55-61.
Agreement of verb with
relative pronoun as sub-
ject, 55.
Alexandrines, 96.
And meaning if, 70.
Antecedent of pronoun: im-
plied, 47; omission of,
46; pronoun separated
from, 48.
Anticipation, 75.
Antony and Cleopatra, 100.
Appositional use of pro-
noun, Irregular, 37.
Arden Shakespeare, The
[American], 9.
Astrology, 83.
Attraction of verb into
agreement with a noun
' not the subject, 61.
Attraction exerted by rela-
tive pronoun, 46.
Autobiographical interpre-
tation of changes in Shake-
speare's writing, 19, 20.
Auxiliary verbs, Meanings
of, 81.
Auxiliary with verbs of
motion, Be as, 54.
Baker, G. P., ir.
Be as auxiliary with verbs
of motion, 54.
Be in indicative, The use
of, 54-
Bernardo (Hamlet), 10.
Better meaning than now,
Words with, 80.
Bibliography, Nature of
the, 7.
201
202
QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Boswell-M alone Shake-
speare, The, 8.
Breaks in the succession
of the plays, 18.
Brooke, Stopford, 18.
Cambridge Shakespeare,
The, 8, 70.
Changes in the artistic
quality, or in the tone
and temper of the plays,
Sudden, 18; Autobio-
graphical interpretation
of, 19, 20.
Changes in Shakespeare's
verse, 98.
Changes of meaning, 80, 81.
Character-study, 6.
Chronicle-play, The char-
acteristics of a, 13.
Clarke, C. C. and Mary
C, 32> 77-
Clarke, Helen A., 8, 9.
Clause as antecedent of
which, A, 47.
Coined adjectives, 61.
Coined verbs, 48.
Colloquial character of
Shakespeare's language,
29.
Comedies, The First, 15;
The Sunny Middle, 16,
17, 18; TheSternerMiddle,
16, 17, 18; The Last,
17, 18, 22.
Comparative expressions
elliptical, 36.
Comparative or superla-
lative, Double, 62.
Comparison, One ending
of, with different adjec-
tives, 62.
Composition of the plays,
The order of the, 12-
17-
Compound subject with
singular members, 56.
Condell, Henry, 21.
Conjunctions and Preposi-
tions, 68-72.
Conjunction, each simple
one had broader mean-
ing, 68.
Conjunctions followed by
that, 69.
Constructions, Mixtures of,
29, 72; respective, 74.
Coriolanus, 100.
Correlative words, 65.
Cymbeline, 13, 22, 23.
Dative uses of pronouns:
the ethical dative, 39.
Degrees of stress in verse,
91.
Do, does, Negative sen-
tences without, 54.
Doth or hath with plural
subject, 59.
Double accentuation of ad-
jectives, 64.
Double comparative or su-
perlative, 62.
Double endings in verse,
95, 101.
Double negative, 67; con-
cealed, 67.
Double object, person plus
a clause, 50.
Doubling of preposition,
72.
Doubling of pronoun, 37.
Doubtful cases in scansion
of lines, 98.
INDEX I
203
Elizabethan coloring, 82.
Elizabethan England, 29.
Ellipsis, 29, 76; in com-
parative expressions, 36;
influencing form of pro-
noun, 36.
Ending of comparison with
different adjectives, A
single, 62.
Endings, Double, 95, 101;
light and weak, 99, 101.
End-stopt lines, 94.
Epithet, Transferred, 62.
Essex, Earl of, 18, 19.
Ethical dative, 39.
Exercises, The kinds of, 6.
Exposition, 10.
Eversley Shakespeare, The,
8,14.
Extra mid-syllables, 96, 101.
Fabulous natural history, 85.
Falconry, 84.
Fare thee well, etc., 40.
Fire, 93.
First Folio, The, 13.
11 First Folio" Shakespeare,
The, 9.
Fleay, F. G., 102.
Fleming, W. H., 8.
Franz, W., 32, 71.
Freedom of Shakespeare's
use of language, 28.
Furness, H. H., 9.
General questions, 6, 7.
Gill, A., 30.
Globe Shakespeare, The, 8.
Hallam, H., 79.
Halliwell-Phillipps, J. O.,
21.
Hamlet, i&, 20^-8,3.
Hath or doth with plural
subject, 59.
Heminge, John, 21.
/ Henry IV, 13, 14, 18.
Henry V, 29.
/ Henry VI, 14.
Henry VIII, 22.
Herbert, William-, Lord
Pembroke, 18, 19.
Here is, etc., with plural
subject, 56.
Herford, C. H., 8, 11, 14,
70.
Hermione {The Winter's
Tale), 23.
His meaning its, 38.
Historical plays, The Eng-
lish, 10, 13, 14. _
Histories, The First, 15;
The Riper, 15, 17.
History, One More, 17.
Holinshed, R., 11.
Horatio {Hamlet), 10.
Horse in Shakespeare, The,
84.
Illogical case forms of pro-
nouns, 29.
Imogen {Cymbeline), 23.
Impersonal verbs, 50.
Indicative, The use of be
in the, 54.
Infinitive, Force of to in
the, 53; presence or
absence of to in the, 53;
subject of, put in nomina-
tive, 38; with force of
finite verb, 38.
Influence, 83.
Ingleby, C. M., 102.
Ingram, J. II., 00, 100, 102.
204
QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Introduction, 1-24.
Irregular force of partici-
ples, 52; of suffixes, 79.
It as indefinite object, 42.
It is I, etc., 40.
Jespersen, Otto, 32.
Johnson, Samuel, 30.
Jonson, Ben, 30.
Julius Caesar, 19, 89 ff.
Kluge, F., 31.
Konig, G., 101, 102.
Language, The Study of
Shakespeare's, 7, 25-85.
Latin meaning, Words used
in their, 79.
Lee, Sidney, 20.
Legal terms, 83.
Light and weak endings,
99, 101.
Lines, End-stopt, 94;
rhymed, 98, 101; run-
on, 94, 101; short, 96.
Logical subject put irregu-
larly in nominative, 37.
Logonomia Anglica, 30.
Loose use of adjectives, 63.
Lounsbury, T. R., ^3, 57>
58.
Lyly, John, 30.
Macbeth, 100.
Madden, D. H., 84.
Main actions, Coexistent,
13; successive, 13.
Marcellus {Hamlet), 10.
Meanings of auxiliary verbs,
81.
Meanings of words better or
worse than now, 80.
Meanings of words, Changes
in, 81.
Means, 93.
Measure for Measure, 22.
Measures: apparently of
one syllable, 93; of three
syllables, 92; with no
stress, 91; with two
stresses, 92.
Metrical table, 101.
Mid-stopt speeches, 96, 101,
102.
Mid-syllables, Extra, 96,
101.
Miranda (The Tempest),
?3-
Mixtures of constructions,
29, 72.
Motion, Be as auxiliary
with verbs of, 54; omis-
sion of verb of, 50.
Musical terms, 83.
Natural historv, Fabulous,
85..
Negative, Concealed, 67;
double, 67.
Negative sentences without
do, does, 54.
Neilson, W. A , 8, 14, 18,
22.
New English Dictionary,
A, 29.
Nominative as general, or
naming form of pronoun,
3*
Nominative, Logical sub-
ject in, 37; object of
preposition in, 36; ob-
ject of verb in, 36;
subject of infinitive in,
38.
INDEX I
205
Noun, Abstract, in plural,
33; abstract, with con-
crete meaning, 33; ad-
jective form as abstract,
32-
Nouns, 32-33.
Nouns, Coined, 32.
Northern dialect, Supposed
influence of, 58, 59.
Object, Double, person plus
a clause, 50.
Omission of relative pro-
noun or antecedent, 46.
Omission of verb of motion,
One syllable, Measures ap-
parently of, 93.
Order of composition of
the plays, The, 12-17.
Outdoor sport, 84.
Participle, Omission of -ed
or -/ in weak, 52; omis-
sion of -en or -n in strong,
51; .
Participles with irregular
force, 52.
Peculiar Constructions, 72 ff .
Pembroke, Lord, 18, 19.
Perdita ( The Winter's
Tale), 23.
Pericles, 13, 60.
Plays, Table of the order
of composition of the,
I5-I7-
Plural subject: with doth
or hath, 59; with here is,
etc., 56; with is, was, or
present indicative in -s,
56; with present indica-
tive in -en or -n, 50.
Poems, The Early, 15.
Porter, Charlotte, 8, 9.
Position, Influence of, upon
form of pronoun, 35.
Possessive, Peculiar uses
of the, 39.
Preposition, Doubling of
the, 72; each simple
one had broader mean-
ing, 70; object of, in
nominative, 36.
Prepositions and Conjunc-
tions, 68-72.
Present indicative, second
singular in -es or -s, 60.
Preterite and participle
alike, 51.
Pronoun, Antecedent of,
implied, 47; doubling of
the, 37; influence of
position upon form of,
35; irregular apposition-
al use of, 37; nomina-
tive as general form of,
34; separated from ante-
cedent, 48.
Pronouns, Illogical case-
forms of, 29; irregular-
ity in the use of, in
Pvlizabethan period, 33.
Pronouns, The, 33-48.
Ptolemaic astronomv, The,
83."
Qualifying phrase, Adjec-
tive separated from, 7X.
Questions on character-
study, 6; general, 6;
on individual acts and
scenes, 6; on the sources,
6; on text or mean-
ing, 6.
206
QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Raleigh, W., 21.
Reconciliation Plays, The,
17, 18, 22.
Reinforced relative pro-
noun, The, 44.
Reinforced substantive,
The, 43.
Relative pronoun: as sub-
ject, agreement of verb
with, 55; attraction by
a, 46; omission of the,
46.
Respective constructions,
74-
Rhyme, 98, 101.
Richard II, 11, 18.
Richard III, 13.
Rolfe, W. J, 9.
Romeo and Juliet, 22.
Run-on lines, 94, 101.
Scansion of lines, Doubt-
ful cases of, 98.
Schmidt, A., 32, 63, 64, 75,
76.
Second singular of present
indicative in -es or -s, 60.
Shifting of the stress, 90.
Short circuit in English
syntax, The, 35.
Short lines, 96.
Sidney, Sir Philip, 30.
Smith, C. Alphonso, 32,
35> 57-59-
Sonnets, The, 16, 20.
Sources, Questions on re-
lation of play to, 6.
Southampton, Earl of, 18,
19.
Spanish Tragedy, The, 2c.
Speeches, Mid-stopt, 96,
101, 102.
Spenser, Edmund, 30.
Sphere, 83.
Sport, Outdoor 84.
Stress, Degrees of, 91;
measures with no, 91;
shifting of the, 90.
Strong participle omitting
-en or -n, 51.
Strong preterite and parti-
ciple alike, 50.
Study 0} Shakespeare's
Language, The, 7, 25-85.
Study 0} Shakespeare's
Verse, The, 87-102.
Style of Shakespeare, De-
velopment of the, 31.
Subjunctive mood, The, 49.
Substantive, Adjective form
as, 32; the reinforced,
Suffixes with irregular force,
79-
Superlative, Double, 62.
Table of the plays, 15-17.
Table showing changes in
Shakespeare's verse, 101.
Tempest, The, 22, 23,
Terms of law and of music,
83-
That: continuing the force
of a conjunction, 70;
following a conjunction,
69.
Thorndikc, A. H., 20.
Thou, The force of, 41.
Three syllables, Measures
of, 92.
To in infinitive, The force
of, ^y, the presence cr
absence of, 53.
Tragedies, The First 15
INDEX I
207
Tragedy, The Period of,
16, 17, 18.
Transferred epithet, 62.
Troilus and Cressida, 13,
22.
Twelfth Night, 83.
Two-faced words, 44.
Two Gentlemen 0} Verona,
The, 11.
Two stresses, Measures
with, 92.
Typical line, The, 89.
Venus and Adonis, 17.
Verb and Subject, Agree-
ment of, 55-61.
Verb, Object of, in nomi-
native, 36.
Verb of motion, Be as
auxiliary with, 54; omis-
sion of, 50.
Verbs, 48-55.
Verbs, Coined, 48; im-
personal, 50,
Verse, The nature of, 89.
Verse, The Study of Shake-
speare's, 87-102.
Voice of adjectives, The, 65.
Weak endings, 99, 101.
Weak participle, Omission
of -ed or -/ in, 52.
What, Adverbial use of, 48.
Which with clause for
antecedent, 47.
Who = whom, 45.
Winter's Tale, The, 22, 23.
Woodcraft in Shakespeare,
84.
Word-order, 78.
Words pronounced in two
ways, 97.
Worse meaning than now,
Words with, 80.
Wright, J., 58.
York, The Duchess of
(Richard II), 11.
INDEX II
INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY
General topics are in italics.
The titles of plays and poems, of periodicals, and of series or sets of
books are in italics.
With a few exceptions, the titles of individual books are not
indexed.
The order of the page numbers is sometimes departed from in order
to put the more important reference first.
Abbott, E. A., 144, 149.
Albright, V. E., 174.
Alden, R. M., 150, 182.
Allen, C, 194.
All's Well That End's Well,
167, 168.
Allusion Book, The Shake-
speare, 140, 156.
Allusions in plays, Sup-
posed, 156.
Alternation staging, The
theory of, 173-75.
Anders, H. R. D., 167, 173.
Antony and Cleopatra, 118,
120, 162, 195, 196.
Arber, E., 156.
Archer, W., 174.
Architect, The, 196-97.
Architecture and costume
of the plays, The, 196-97.
Arden Shakespeare, The,
122.
Ashbee, E. W., 112.
As You Like It, 120, 157,
167, 168, 195, 196.
Bacon-Shakespeare Ques-
tion, The, 194, 195.
Bagehot, W., 139.
Baker, G. P., 126, 172,
I75-.
Bankside Shakespeare, The,
114.
Bartlett, J., 143.
Bates, K. L., 106.
Barton Collection, Cata-
logue of the, 106.
Bathurst, C, 152, 153.
Baynes, T. S., 138.
Beaumont, F., and Fletcher,
J., 169.
Beeching, H. C, 194.
Bennett, J., 195.
Bibliographical Helps, 1 06 ff.
Bibliothek der deutsch-
en Shakespeare-Gesell-
schaft, Katalog der, 106.
Black, W., 194.
Blackfriars Theater, The,
177.
Boas, F. S., 126.
Bormann, W., 173.
Boswell, J., 118, 119.
Boswell-M alone Edition 0}
Shakespeare, The, 118,
172.
208
INDEX II
209
Boswell-Stone, W. G., 166,
187.
Boyle, R., 154.
Bradley, A. C, 126, 139,
176, 182.
Brandes, G., 126.
Brandl, A., 138, 173.
Bright, J. W., 150.
Ten Brink, B., 127.
British Museum Catalogue,
etc., 106.
Brodmeier, C., 173.
Brooke, C. F. T., 180.
Brooke, S. A., 127.
Browne, G. H., 149.
Bucknill, J. C., 191.
Bulthaupt, H., 182.
Burgess, W., 197.
Caffin, C. H., 182.
Cambridge History 0) Eng.
Literature, The, 127.
Cambridge Shakespeare,
The, 119, 109, in, 112,
161, 162.
Campbell, J. (Lord), 191.
Capell, E., 160, 118, 162,
163.
Carlyle, T., 127.
Chambers, E. K., 177.
Changes in Shakespeare's
verse, The, 152-53.
Chronological Order oj the
Plays, The, 150 ff.
Clark, W. G., 119, 121.
Clarke, C. C., 127; (and
M. C.) 143, 145, 183.
Clarke, H. A. See Porter
and Clarke.
Cohn, A., 140.
Coleridge, S. T., 127.
Collier, J. P., 123, 166, 172.
Collins, J. C, 162, 168, 195.
Comedy 0/ Errors, The, 151,
167.
Commentaries, 126 £f.
Concordances, Dictionaries,
etc., 143 f.
Contention, etc., The First
Part o) the, 109, no.
Corbin, J., 176.
Coriolanus, 167, 168.
Corson, H., 127, 149.
Costume of the plays,
Architecture and, 196-
97-
Courtenay, T. P., 187.
Courthope, W. J., 127.
Craig, W. J., 122, 123.
Craik, G. L., 145.
Creighton, M., 192.
Creizenach, W., 127.
CunlifTe, R. J., 144.
Cunningham, P., 172.
Cymbeline, 169, 195, 196.
Daniel, P. A., 112, 19 r.
Daniel, S., 168.
Dekker, T., 193.
Delius, N., 123, 157, 168.
Demmon, I. N., 118, 160,
163.
Dennis, J., 132.
Deutsche Shakespearc-
Gesellschaft, Die, 106,
132.
Devonshire Qi of Richard
II, The, 1 1 2.
Dictionary 0} National
Biography, The, 107.
Dictionaries, Concordances,
etc., 143 f.
Doggerel lines, 151.
Doubleday, II. A., 139.
2IO
QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Double endings, 151, 152,
153-
Doubtful Plays, The, 180.
Douce, F., 167.
Dowden, E., 128, 122, 146,
153. J54.
Dowden Shakespeare, The,
122.
Drake, N., 138, 193.
Drama, Histories of the
Elizabethan, 126 ff.
Dramatic Technique, 182 ff.
Dyce, A., 121, 143, 162.
Dyer, T. F. T., 191.
Editions 0} Shakespeare,
Modern, 118 ff.
Edwards, T., 163, 150.
Elizabeth, Queen of Eng-
land, 177.
Ellacombe, H. N., 191.
Elson, L. C, 191.
Elton, C. I., 189.
Elze, K., 128, 138, 139.
Emerson, R. W., 128, 152.
Encyclopaedia Britannica,
The, 107.
Enjambement. See Run-on
lines.
Eversley Shakespeare, The,
121.
External Evidence 0) Dates
of Plays, 155 f.
Extra mid-syllables, 152,
154.
Family, Shakespeare' s, 189.
Famous Victories of Henry
V, They i\2, 167.
Farmer, R., 119, 168.
Faucit, Helen, 130.
Feuillerat, A., 177.
"First Folio" Shakespeare
The, 121, 114, 168.
Fleay, F. G., 128, 137, 153,
154, 173-
Fleming, W. H., 182, 196.
Fletcher, J., 146, 151-52,
169.
Folios, The, 109; Reproduc-
tions of, 113 ff.
Franz, W., 144.
French, G. R., 189.
Freytag, G., 182.
Furness, H. H., 120, 107,
118, 156, 161, 162, 166;
H. H., Jr., 120.
Furnivall, F. J., 128, no,
123, 140, 153, 191, 193,
194.
Gaedertz, K. T., 173.
Gardiner, S. R., 192.
Gayley, C. M., 150.
Genee, R., 173, 176.
General Works on Shake-
speare, 126 ff.
Gervinus, G. G., 128.
Gildersleeve, V. C, 177.
Globe Shakespeare, The,
121.
Glover, J., 119.
Godfrey, L. B., 106.
Godwin, E. W., 196.
Golding, A., 167.
Goll, A., 191.
Gollancz, I., 121, 167.
Grabau, C., 173.
Grammar of Shakespeare,
The, 144 f.
Greene, R., 168.
Greenwood, G. G., 194.
Greg, W. W., 115, 106, no,
in.
INDEX II
211
Griffiths, L. M., 194.
Griggs, W., no.
Grube, M., 173.
Gummere, F. B., 149.
Hale, E. E., Jr., 175.
Hallcck, R. P., 138.
Halliwell (later Halliwell-
Phillipps), J. O., 137,
112, 113, 123, 144.
Halpin, N. J., 182.
Hamilton, C, 183.
Hamlet, in, 120, 167, 177,
195, 196.
Haniror, T., 118, 160, 162.
Harrison, W., 193.
Harting, J. E., 191.
Hartmann, S., 191.
Hazlitt, W., 128.
Hazlitt, W. C, 166.
Heard, F. F., 192.
Heath, B., 162, 163.
Helmholtz-Phelan, A. A.,
177.
Hennequin, A., 183.
I Henry IV, no, 195, 196.
II Henry IV, 111, 195, 196.
Henry V, 11 1, 121, 167,
196.
II Henry VI, no.
III Henry VI, no.
Henry VIII, 146, 151, 152,
Herford, C. H., 121, 150.
Herlzberg, W. A. B., 153.
Histories of the Elizabethan
Drama, 126 ff.
Histories, The, 187.
History 0} Shakes peat pe 's
Reputation, The, 140.
History 0} the Period, The,
192 f.
Holinshed, R., 166, 195.
Holmes, N., 194.
Hooker, E. R., 169.
Hudson, H. N., 129, 123.
Hugo, Victor, 129.
Hunter, J., 168.
Huth Qx of Richard II,
The, 112.
Influences Affecting Shake-
speare, Literary, 166 ff.
Ingleby, C. M., 161, 140.
Ingram, J. K., 153.
Irving, H., 123.
Jacobs, J., 167.
Jahrbuch der deutschen
Shakes pear e-Gesellscha ft,
107, 173-
Jameson, A., 129.
Janssen, V. F., 157.
Jespersen, O., 145.
John, King, 167, 195, 196.
Johnson, C. F., 161.
Johnson, S., 118, 129, 160,
162.
Julius Caesar, 168, 195,
196.
Jusserand, J. J., 129, 140.
Kilian, E., 173.
Klarbach, Alfred von, 176.
Kluge, F., 145.
Knight, C, 119, 151.
Koch, M., 107.
konig, ('.., [49, 154.
konig, W., 1S7.
Koeppel, E., [92.
Kreyssig, F., 129.
Lamb, C. and M., [94.
Lambert, 1). II., [37.
212
QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Laneham, R., 193.
Language of Shakespeare,
The, 143 ff.
Lanier, S., 149.
Lawrence, W. J., 175.
Lear, King, 111, 120, 167,
195, 196.
Lee, Sidney, 137, 106, 113,
160, 176, 189, 195.
Life of Shakespeare, The,
.137 ff.
Light and weak endings,
152, !53> I54-
Littledale, H., 143.
Lloyd, W. W., 129.
London of Shakespeare, The,
172.
Lounsbury, T. R., 129, 130,
140, i5i.
Lover's Complaint, A, 112.
Love's Labour's Lost, no,
120, 151, 195, 196.
Love's Labour's Won, 155.
Love's Martyr; or Rosalin s
Complaint, 112.
Lowell, J. R., 129.
Lowndes, W. T., 106, 118,
160, 163.
Luce, M., 130.
Lucrece, 112, 113, 167.
Lyly, J., 168.
Mabie, H. \\\, 138.
Macbeth, 120, 195, 196.
Madden, D. H., 192.
Matzner, E., 145.
Malone, E., 118, 119, 151,
162.
Manly, J. M., 182.
Manningham, J., 156.
Marriott, E., 104.
Marshall, F, A., 123.
Martin, Lady, 130.
Matthews, B., 183.
Mayor, J. B., 149.
McKerrow, R. B., 193.
Measure for Measure, 167.
Merchant of Venice, The,
in, 120, 196.
Meres, F., 155.
Merry Wives of Windsor,
The, in.
Messalina, 176.
Mezieres, A., 130.
Mid-stopt speeches, 154.
Midsummer-Xighf s Dream,
A, no, 120, 167, 195, 196.
Mid-syllables, Extra, 152,
154.
Miller, R. D., 150.
Miscellaneous Works, 194 s.
Modem Editions of Shake-
speare, 118 ff.
Modern Reproductions of
Quartos and Folios, noff.
Moorman, F. \Y., 168.
Montagu, E., 130.
Montaigne's relation to
Shakespeare, 169.
Morgann, M., 130, 132.
Morsbach, L., 139.
Moulton, R. G., 130, 1^7,
183.
Much Ado about Nothing,
in, 120, 196.
Munro, J., 128, 140.
Murray, J. A. H., 143.
Musical settings for Shake-
speare's songs, 192.
Nares, R., 144.
Nay lor, E. \V., 192.
Neilson, \Y. A., 122, 161,
162.
INDEX II
213
New English Dictionary, A ,
143-
New Shakspere Society,
The, 132.
New Variorum Shake-
speare, A, 107.
Norris, J. P., 192.
North, T., 166, 167.
Ordish, T. F., 172.
Othello, in, 112, 120, 195,
196.
Ovid, 167.
Page, W., 139.
Painter, W., 167.
Parsons, J. C, 149.
Passionate Pilgrim, The,
112, 113.
Pater, W., 187.
Pericles, 109, in, 113.
Phil aster, 169.
Phin, J., 144.
Phipson, E., 192.
Phoenix and the Turtle,
The, 112.
Plutarch, 166.
Pollard, A. W., 115, 107,
109, no, III.
Pope, A., 118, 120, 160, 161,
162.
Porter, C, and Clarke,
H. A., 121, 114, 120, 161,
168, 195.
Possart, E. von, 177.
Praetorius, C, no.
Price, W. T., 183.
Quartos, The, 109, iioff;
Modern Reproductions of,
iioff.
Queen Elizabeth, 117.
Raleigh, W., 130.
Rann, J., 118.
Reed, I., 118.
Relation of Shakespeare to
His Age, 137 ff.
Reputation, The History
of Shakespeare's, 140.
Revolving stage, The, 177.
Reynolds, G. F., 173, 174,
176.
Rhyme, 153.
Richard II, no, 112, 195,
196.
Richard III, no, 120, 196.
Richardson, W., 131.
Roderick, R., 150, 152.
Rolfe, W. J., 122, 106, 114,
137, i38-
Romeo and Juliet, no, 120,
167, 168, 196.
Root, R. K., 169, 192.
Rouse, W. H. D., 167.
Rowe, N., 118, 119, 160,
162.
Run-on lines, 151, 152, 153,
154, 155.
Rye, W. B., 193.
Sachs, R., 180.
Sarrazin, G., 146.
Schelling, F. E., 107, 131,
169, 187.
Schipper, J., 150.
Schlegel, A. W., 131.
Schmidt, A., 143.
Scott, F. N., 150.
Shakespeare Allusion Booh,
The, 140.
Shakespeare Classics, The,
167.
Shakespeare Library, The,
193, x94-
214
QUESTIONS ON SHAKESPEARE
Shakespeare's Family, 189.
Shakespeare's Library, 166.
Shakespeare's Life, 137 ff.
Shakspere Quarto Fac-
similes, The, 109, no,
112.
Shakespeare Societies, 131.
Shakespeare's Sources,
166 ff.
Shakespeare-Stage, The,
i75> i76> x77-
Shakespeare the Man, 139.
Sharpe, H., 157.
Sheavyn, P. A. B., 193.
Sherman, L. A., 132, 196.
Sievers, E. W., 132.
Simpson, R., 180, 187.
Simrock, K., 167.
Singer, S. W., 123, 162.
Skeat, W. W., 166.
Skemp, A. R., 176.
Skottowe, A., 138.
Smith, C. A., 145, 114, 144,
162.
Smith, D. N., 132, 130, 140.
Smith, G., 139.
Smith, J. C, 157.
Smith, L. T., 140.
Snider, D. J., 132.
Social Life 0} the Period,
The, 192 ff.
Sonnenschein, W. S., 107.
Sonnets, Shakespeare's, 112,
"3» J37. 155-
Spalding, W., 145.
Special Works, 191 f.
Spedding, J., 146, 151.
Staunton, H., 113, 123.
Steevens, G., 118.
Stephen, L., 139.
Stephenson, H. T., 172.
Stoffel, C, 161.
Stokes, H. P., 154.
Stoll, E. E., 133.
Stopes, C. C, 189, 194.
Stow, J., 172.
Stratford-on-Avon and Vi-
cinity, 189.
Style 0} Shakespeare, The,
143 ff; Changes in, 145 f.
Swan Theater, The, 173.
Swinburne, A. C, 133.
Taming 0} a Shrew, The,
112, 114.
Taming 0} the Shrew, The,
114, 151, 167, 196.
Technique, Dramatic, 180.
Tempest, The, 120, 196.
Temple Shakespeare, The,
121.
Ten Brink, B., 127.
Text of Shakespeare, The,
160 ff; History 0} the,
160 ff.
Theobald, L., 162, 118,
120, 160, 161.
Thirlby, S., 162.
Thompson, E. N. S., 177.
Thornburv, G. W., 193.
Thorndike, A. H., 133, 169.
Times, The London, 139.
Timon of Athens, 167.
Titus Andronicus, no.
Tolman, A. H., 155, 156,
175, 184.
Traill, H. D., 193.
Transactions of the AVa'
Shakspere Society, The,
i32> IS1-
Tree, H. B., 176.
Troilus and Cressida, in.
Troublesome Reign of King
John, The, 112, 114.
INDEX II
215
no.
True Tragtdy of Richard Warburton, W., 118, 160,
Duke of York, The, 109, 162, 163.
Ward, A. W., 133, 106, 168,
180.
Ward, H. S., 189.
Warner, B., 187.
Watson, F., 138.
Weak endings, 152, 153.
Wegener, R., 174.
Weiss, J., 133.
Wendell, B., 133.
Werner, R. M., 183.
Twelfth Night, 120, 156,
196.
Two Noble Kinsmen, The,
i45-
Tyrwhitt, T., 162, 163.
Ulrici, H., 133.
VanDam, A. P., 161.
Variation between Verse and Whately, T., 133.
Prose, The, 157. Wheatley, H. B., 172, 173.
Venus and Adonis, 11 1, White, R. G., 119, 138, 161,
113. 195.
Verity, A. W., 146, 168. Williams, J. L., 189.
Verse, Shakespeare' s, 149 ff. Wilson, J., 183.
Victoria History of the Winchester, C. T., 106.
Counties of England, Winter's Tale, The, 120,
The, 139.
Vietor, W., 196.
Viles, E., 194.
Vincke, G. von, 180.
Walder, E., 161.
Walker, W. S., 152, 162,
163.
Wallace, C. W., 139, 177.
167, 168, 196.
Wise, J. R., 189.
Woodbridge, E., 184.
Wordsworth, C, 187, 192
Wright, J., 174.
Wright, T., 144.
Wright, W. A., 119, 121,
145-
Wyman, W. H., 194.
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