The Middle Ages

An lllustra
History

An Illustrated History

Barbara A. Hanawalt

Oxford University Press

New York • Oxford

Oxford University Press

Oxford New York

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Copyright ©1998 by Barbara A. Hanawalt
Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.,

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Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press

All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
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photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior
permission of Oxford University Press.

Design: Sandy Kaufman
Layout: Loraine Machlin
Picture research: Lisa Kirchner

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hanawalt, Barbara.

The Middle Ages: an illustrated history / Barbara A. Hanawalt.
p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Middle Ages—History—-Juvenile literature. [1. Middle Ages.]

I. Title.

D117.H26 1998

909.07—dc21

ISBN 0-19-510359-9

579 86

Frontispiece: Image of knight praying on 14th century
stained glass window, Kreuzenstein Armory,
Kreuzenstein, Austria

Printed in Hong Kong
on acid-free paper

Contents

7 Introduction

9 Chapter I / The Three Cultures that Made the Middle Ages

25 Chapter 2 / Settling Down in the Old Empire

39 Chapter 3 / Three Empires: Carolingian, Byzantine , and Arab

55 Chapter 4 / The Turning Point

7 1 Chapter 5 / The Flowering of Medieval Europe

91 Chapter 6 / New Architecture, Ideas, and Monastic Orders

111 Chapter 7 / Communities and Their Members

129 Chapter 8 / The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse

146 Chronology

150 Glossary

152 Further Reading

156 Index

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Introduction

Medieval maps of the world were al¬
ways round and showed Jerusalem,
the place of Jesus’ resurrection, in the
center. The top of the map is east so
that the sun rises where Jesus stands,
flanked by two angels. Africa is the
landmass on the right side (south),
Europe is at the bottom (west) and
extends almost to the nine o’clock po¬
sition (north). The Mediterranean Sea
separates Africa and Europe. Asia is
to the left of Jesus.

T he terms “Middle Ages” and “medie¬
val” were first used by Italian Ren¬
aissance historians of the 15th and
16th centuries. They regarded their
culture as similar to that of the classical world
of ancient Greece and Rome, but very differ¬
ent from the period between the fall ofRome
and their own enlightened time. To Renais¬
sance scholars that long interval was a period
of superstition, ignorance, and barbarism,
which they also called “the Dark Ages.”

The scholars recording history during the
Middle Ages, however, perceived the pe¬
riod very differently. Their chronicles show
that they saw history as a continuous proces¬
sion of events from the Biblical creation
down to their own time. Augustine of
Hippo (354-430), one of the early writers on
Christianity, explained in The City of God
that events such as wars and the formation of
empires and kingdoms were not significant
divisions in history. He instead maintained
that human history progressed continuously
from the creation to the end of the world.
Like Augustine, people living in the Middle
Ages did not discern a chronological break
from the Roman period to their own.

Modem scholars of the medieval period,
or medievalists, often struggle with the ques¬
tion of when the Middle Ages began and
ended. The question is not easy to answer,
because for the most part change takes place
gradually and periods form their character¬
istics over centuries. But generally the
medieval penod is considered to stretch
from the fifth to the 15th century, or from
about 400 to 1500.

Another artificial boundary imposed on
the Middle Ages is geographical. Medieval
scholars did not use terms such as “western
Europe” and “eastern Europe” or names
for nation-states such as France, Greece,
Germany, Turkey, and Italy. They were
more inclined to draw boundaries along
religious lines, by which they could distin¬
guish their Roman Catholic culture and
beliefs from those of Islam or of the Greek
Christian (Orthodox) Church. By the end
of the Middle Ages, people began to de¬
velop national identities—a sense, for
example, of being French as opposed to
English. But most people would have had
a very local identity, defining themselves
first by their father’s or mother’s name,
then by their village or town of origin, and
perhaps then by their overlord, their king
or queen (if they had one), and their
religion.

Before the 1970s, books on medieval
history would deal exclusively with emper¬
ors, kings, battles, crusades, feudalism,
manorialism, the rise of towns, the growth
of parliament, universities, and the Church.
In the past several decades, however, histo¬
rians have been researching how average
people experienced life in the Middle Ages.
Histories of the period now contain infor¬
mation about Jews, women, children,
peasants, heretics, mystics, and criminals.
Such histories include a skeleton of tradi¬
tional historical narrative fleshed out with
stories about the ordinary as well as extraor¬
dinary people who lived through the events
of the Middle Ages.

NTR0DUCTI0N • 7

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Chapter l

The Three Cultures That
Made the Middle Ages

Two o f the early “Doctors of the
Church”—prominent interpreters
of Christianity—were Augustine
of Hippo (left) and Ambrose of
Milan . Bishop Ambrose's ser¬
mons were in part responsible for
Augustine’s conversion. Augus¬
tine went on to write his
Confessions, an autobiographi¬
cal account of his spiritual life,
and The City of God.

B ecause Augustine of Hippo (354-
430) wrote the first autobiography,
his Confessions , we know more about
his personal life than we do about
almost any other medieval figure. Augustine
came from one of the most prominent
Roman provincial families of North Africa.
His father, Patricius, was a Roman noble
who accepted the Greco-Roman pantheon
of gods and thus worshippedjupiter, Venus,
and Mars. But Augustine’s mother, Monica,
was a Christian, and urged him to worship
only the Judeo-Christian God.

Otherwise, Augustine’s early life was
typical of boys ofthe upper class. He learned
Latin and Greek; read stories of the exploits
of the gods, goddesses, and heroes such as
Hercules and Odysseus; studied histories of
the founding of Rome; and memorized the
speeches of great Roman orators such as
Cicero. His parents expected that he would
go on to take a position in the Roman
imperial government and sent him to
Carthage for further education when he was
in his teens. Augustine’s training included
the study of Greek and Latin rhetoric (the art
of making convincing arguments) and lit¬
erature, geometry, and philosophy. He read

Homer, Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras, Virgil,
and Cicero, among other authors. The study
of rhetoric was considered useful for the
political and administrative role he would
one day play. (This education—with the
exception ofthe study of Greek language—
would become the model for medieval
scholars and universities.)

Away from home, he pursued interests
then typical of a teenager. He took a mistress
at the age of 18 and eventually had a son by
her. He also came into contact with new
philosophies that questioned the old order
of the gods and instead addressed moral
issues, including questions about the nature
of good and evil behavior.

Moving on to Milan in Italy, Augustine
continued his preparation for a career in
keeping with his upbringing. He became
engaged to a wealthy young woman of his
own class and cast aside his mistress and their
son. But he also attended the sermons of a
persuasive Christian orator, Bishop Ambrose
of Milan. Christianity made Augustine feel
increasingly guilty about his life of pleasure
and his ambitions to play a major role in
Roman politics. A friend furthered his anxi¬
ety by telling him the story of two young

THE THREE CULTURES THAT MADE THE MIDDLE AGES * 9

To pay for the extensive public ser¬
vices that Rome provided\ including
paved roads, fresh water supplies for
cities, and the administration of jus¬
tice, the empire had to tax its citizens
heavily. The people paid coins (they
did not have paper money) directly to
the tax collector.

upper-class men who had given up their
engagements and careers to become Chris¬
tian monks. Tom between the traditions of
his Roman heritage and the new Christian
ideals espoused by his mother and Bishop
Ambrose, Augustine retreated to his garden
to meditate on his beliefs. In tears, he heard
the voice of a small child repeating over and
over: “Take it and read, take it and read.”
He returned to his house and opened his
copy of St. Paul’s Epistles to the Romans,
in which he read Paul’s exhortation that
Romans should abandon their lusts and
accept Jesus Christ as their protector. Au¬
gustine later wrote in his autobiography:
“As I finished the sentence, as though the
light of peace had been poured into my
heart, all the shadows of doubt dispersed. ”
He converted to Christianity and returned
to Hippo, in North Africa. There he estab¬
lished an order of monks and eventually
became the bishop of Hippo. From that
town, he observed the incursion of barbar¬
ian tribes, who sacked the city of Rome
and destroyed the way of life that he knew.

Rather than looking upon the changes in
his world negatively, he wrote in another
book, The City of God, that the world of the
spirit was more important than that of the
empire. Ironically, he died a few months
before the Vandals, one of the invading
tribes, captured Hippo.

Three cultures—Roman, Christian, and
barbarian—strongly influenced Augustine’s
life and pulled him emotionally in three
directions. In the end, these three cultures
were all instrumental in shaping the Middle
Ages. As Augustine’s life shows, living
through the fourth and fifth centuries was
not easy. People had to struggle with con¬
flicting ideas about spiritual values, reconcile
different forms of government, leam new
languages, and cope with major changes in
their daily lives.

The Roman Empire initially controlled
only the city of Rome and the surrounding
countryside, known as Latinium. Through
gradual conquests, its control extended over
a vast area surrounding the Mediterranean
Sea. Eventually portions of the continents
of Europe, Africa, and Asia were included
in its borders. The populations that Rome
dominated included Celts in the territory of
modem Britain, France, and Spain; Berbers
and Egyptians in North Africa; Germanic
tribes in modem Germany; and Greeks,
Syrians, Jews, and Arabs in the eastern
Mediterranean. In Europe Roman control
extended into Britain, across the Rhine
River into Germany, down the Danube
River to the Black Sea, along a fringe
around that sea, and deep into the Middle
East. From east to west the empire extended
3,000 miles, approximately the distance
between New York and San Francisco.

10 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

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The Roman government began as a
republic governed by a senate that repre¬
sented wealthy established families and an
assembly that represented the plebeians, or
ordinary free citizens. As the territory ex¬
panded, this representative form of
government no longer worked, and an
emperor became the titular head of Rome
and the large land mass it had acquired.
Some aspects of the older form of govern¬
ment were retained. The senators, for
instance, still served as generals in the army
and governors in the provinces. They also
oversaw a highly sophisticated bureaucracy
that administered laws and public services
and collected taxes. (In his youth, August¬
ine had been grooming himself to become
just such an imperial administrator.) A com¬
mon language for administration (Latin), a
system of paved roads that made it possible
to send mail and move troops rapidly, and
Roman law held together this vast geo¬
graphic area with its diverse ethnic groups.
The peace that the Roman Empire secured
for its conquered peoples was called the
“Pax Romana,” or the peace of Rome.

The physical remains of the remarkable
Roman culture still exist throughout Eu¬
rope, Asia, and Africa. In all parts of the
former empire, poitions of the Roman
roads used during the Middle Ages can still
be seen today. In Britain, the remnants of
Hadrian’s Wall (a stone barrier erected to
keep out the Piets, or natives of Scotland)
still stand; in Trier, Germany, a large Ro¬
man gate (Porta Nigra) is the focus of the
town; and in Syria and Egypt the ruins of
major Roman buildings are a common
feature of the landscape. Still standing in
other areas of the Romans’ vast territory are
the remains of country villas (often with
only their magnificent mosaic floors intact),
aqueducts for carrying fresh spring water to
the heart of the cities, theaters and colise¬
ums (public stadiums) for races and gladiator
fights, forums for political debate and mar¬
kets, public baths, and temples for the
worship of the gods and goddesses.

The most remarkable ruins are found in
Pompeii, a city that was buried under a layer
of volcanic ash in a.d. 79. Here a whole city
is preserved—from the corpses of those

The Roman Empire was a large land
mass stretching from Britain doum
into Egypt. Its trade and administra¬
tion focused on the Mediterranean. Its
borders in Europe were exposed to
Germanic tribes to the North; in-
Asia the Persian Kingdom to the east
posed a threat. In the fifth century the
Germanic tribes flooded across the
border.

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THE THREE CULTURES THAT MADE THE MIDDLE AGES • 11

A fragment carved in stone of the
street plan of Rome in a.d. 203—
211 shows that the city was planned
in a grid with buildings facing the
street and a garden area behind the
buildings. The grid pattern was
adopted widely in 18th- and 19th-
century urban planning.

This amphitheater in Arles, France,
was built in the late first century a.d.
in imitation of the Coliseum in
Rome. The people of Roman cities
came to see chariot races, wild beast
hunts, and gladiatorial games. Dur¬
ing the persecution of Christians in
the early third century, the imperial
authorities had wild beasts kill
Christians in the amphitheaters as
entertainment.

killed in the disaster, positioned just as they
were when caught unawares in their houses
or streets, to the wall paintings in villas and
even the graffiti in alleys. The remains of
Pompeii reveal that the houses of the nch
were brilliantly painted and had glittering
mosaic floors. Although the furniture was
sparse, statuary was common. Indoor plumb¬
ing added to the comfort of these private
houses.

Booty and slaves from conquests further
enhanced the wealth that the upper classes
received from their vast country estates
(latifundia) . Unfortunately for most people,

however, only members of the upper
classes—the senatorial families, well-paid
bureaucrats, and others with considerable
wealth—enjoyed such a high standard of
living. The Roman Empire did not provide
such comforts for ordinary people, and
ill-fed and over-worked slaves and laborers
made up 80 to 90 percent of the population.
Many slaves were highly educated Greeks
who tutored young patrician boys such as
Augustine. Others were skilled artisans, and
still others from conquered tribes were lit
only for fieldwork, the army, or fighting as
gladiators. As slaves, they suffered violent
removal from their language and culture,
disruption of family life, sexual exploita¬
tion, brutality, and other abuses. Under the
empire, plebeians no longer served in the
army, but they continued to have political
influence. To keep this restive group from
rebelling against the senators and emperors,
they received public support in the form of
“bread and circuses,” that is, free grain and
sporting events.

An empire composed of diverse and
hostile populations is difficult to hold to¬
gether, but more severe problems arose
from the chaos in the central government
of the Roman Empire. By the third cen¬
tury, generals were declaring themselves
emperors and leading armies of profes¬
sional soldiers (mercenaries, or non-citizen
soldiers paid to fight) against each other. Of
the more than 20 emperors who served
during one 50-year period, only one died
of natural causes. The taxes levied to pay
the mercenary soldiers became so burden¬
some that bureaucrats, retired soldiers, and
others of the middle class fled to the coun¬
tryside to avoid them. Added to the internal

12 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

When the volcano Mt. Vesuvius
erupted in a.d. 79 it buried the
city of Pompeii in volcanic ash,
killing hundreds of people. It also
preserved the city as it was on the
day of the eruption. The walls of
wealthy villas were painted with
vividly colored scenes , including
this one of a Roman city.

stresses and strains on the empire were
external threats. The Persians began invad¬
ing the empire’s extreme eastern frontier
and a series of barbarian tribes were begin¬
ning to move across its western borders. By
407 Rome had already abandoned control
of England.

The general disorder and the invasions
led to a major reorganization under Em¬
peror Diocletian (245-316; reigned
284—305). He was not a member of the
traditional Roman senatorial class but rather
a career soldier who came from the Balkan
peninsula. He favored the eastern half of the
empire, which he knew best. There Greek
was spoken, and it was wealthier and easier
to defend than the west, where the invading
tribes were already settling within the
empire’s borders.

In 330, the Emperor Constantine (c. 280s-
337; reigned 306—337) moved the capital
from Rome to Byzantium, a small Greek
city on the Bosporus channel, and renamed
the city for himself—Constantinople. He
moved many treasures and sculptures from
Rome to Constantinople and encouraged
the senators and patrician class to join him in
the new capital. This eastern empire, which
has become known as the Byzantine Em¬
pire, survived in diminishing form until
1453. To people in the Middle Ages, it
remained the Roman Empire and its ruler
was the Roman emperor. In medieval
chronicles, however, its people were always
referred to as Greeks because they spoke the
Greek language.

Yet another source of turmoil added to
the imperial officials’ sense of unrest—
Chnstians. Rome did not impose a religion
on its conquered subjects. Although its

official religion was based on its pantheon
of gods, it allowed local groups to worship
the gods of their ancestors. Among these
groups several mystery religions (religions
based on divine revelation) had also grown
up, including the worship ofMythras, the
god of the sun. The mystery cults offered
their followers the assurance that the cults’
founders were resurrected after death, a
code of ethics, and the promise of an
eternal afterlife. For soldiers, slaves, and
even some patricians, Mythrasism was a
comforting religion that they could prac¬
tice while also worshipping Roman gods

and goddesses. Christianity, a new religion
with some of the characteristics of the
mystery cults, posed more of a threat to
Roman traditions, however. As an off¬
shoot of Judaism, it was monotheistic
(recognizing only one god rather than
numerous gods) and denied its adherents
worship of the official pantheon.

The story of Jesus recorded by his early
biographers in the four Gospels—Matthew,
Mark, Luke, and John—spoke not only of
his message of salvation, peace, love, and
compassion, but also of his disruptive rela¬
tionship with his fellow Jews and eventual

THE THREE CULTURES THAT MADE THE MIDDLE AGES • 13

Christians used a variety of symbols
as metaphors for their religion. Stone
carvings on sarcophagi, such as this
one from the fourth century , include
fish to represent converts, an anchor to
signify hope, and a shepherd to sym¬
bolize Christ caring for his flock.

The Byzantines closely associated
Constantine (wearing crown) with
Christianity and called him “the
equal of the apostles. ” Pictures repre¬
sented him as the religious leader of
all Christians.

execution by Roman officials. Of the his-
toricjesus of Nazareth little is known aside
from what is told in the Gospels. He was
Jewish and probably born sometime be¬
tween 8 b.c. and 4 b.c., rather than the
traditional date of a.d. 1. He was an itin¬
erant preacher who attracted followers.
The period in which he preached was one
of unrest in Palestine. Jews were hoping
for the advent of a messiah who would
deliver them from Roman rule. Where
Jesus fell afoul of the Jewish population,
however, was his claim that he was a
spiritual messiah, seeking religious renewal
rather than war. (Christ is the Greek trans¬
lation of the word messiah.)

Christianity spread through the preach¬
ing of the first apostles and the efforts of an
early convert, Paul. Speaking in the mar¬
ketplaces, the apostles and other missionaries
encouraged people to convert to the Chris¬
tian faith. Baptism—a ceremony in which

water is used to wash away the original sin
of Adam and Eve—distinguished member¬
ship in the sect. Baptism and the Eucharist
(Greek for “thanksgiving”)—the com¬
memoration of the last supper Jesus had
with the apostles, which is also known as
communion—were the religion’s chief sac¬
raments. Soon Christians were meeting in
small groups under the leadership of bish¬
ops. Paul gave advice on issues of worship
through letters to these communities, and
these were preserved in the New Testa¬
ment as the Epistles of Paul. Although
Christianity was most popular in the eastern
part of the Roman Empire, the disciples
traveled all over the empire, and Christian
tradition maintains thatjesus’ chief disciple,
Peter, was martyred in Rome.

As the religion spread, Roman officials
became suspicious of its followers. After all,
the sect worshipped a man who reportedly
was executed by crucifixion—a common
Roman punishment for criminals that en¬
tailed either binding or nailing their hands
and feet to crossed pieces of wood and
leaving them to die. The organization of the
religion into congregations under a bishop
and the possibility that it would cause upris¬
ings in the Jewish communities also suggested
that it was a politically dangerous move¬
ment. Furthermore, Christianity’s message
was finding acceptance among the urban
poor, slaves, women, and even soldiers. For
the downtrodden, its promises of the for¬
giveness of sins and eternal salvation for
those who suffered in this world had a
strong appeal.

In the early fourth century, Diocletian
issued an edict against Christians and their
worship. It called for the confiscation of

14 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

copies of the Gospels and Epistles of Paul
and the execution of Christians who would
not renounce their faith. The response of
Christians to this repression is recorded in
both official documents and the traditions
of the Church. Some turned over their
religious books and abandoned Christian¬
ity, but others chose to become martyrs for
their religion. The atrocities they suffered—
including crucifixions, flayings, fatal
confrontations with wild animals in am¬
phitheaters, and being forced into
prostitution—gave Christian culture pow¬
erful stories of the martyrs’ devotion to
their religion.

One well-known story is that of
Androcles and the Hon. Androcles was a
Christian slave who had run away into the
wilderness, where he met a Hon with a
thorn stuck in its paw. Overcoming his fear
of the beast, he extracted the thorn. Shortly
afterwards, Androcles was captured and
taken to a coliseum to be executed. He was
thrown into the arena with a Hon, which by
chance happened to be the same animal he
had helped. Recognizing his savior, the
Hon would not kill Androcles.

The writings of Vibia Perpetua, who
died in an arena in Carthage on March 7,
302, provides a moving personal account of
martyrdom. Although her father was a
high-ranking Roman official who believed
in the pantheon of gods, Perpetua refused
to renounce her Christianity. Educated in
Latin and Greek, she wrote an account of
her arrest, her father’s anguish, how she
cared for her infant son in prison, and her
visions of deliverance into heaven after her
impending martyrdom. The person who
wrote the end of her story recorded that the

The Four Gospels as Mythical Beasts

I n medieval illustrations
and sculpture, the four
Gospel writers, or the
evangelists—Matthew,
Mark, Luke, and John—
were represented symboli¬
cally as beasts. This sym¬
bolism was drawn from
the book of Revelations
(Rev. 4:6-10).

The beasts used to
symbolize each of the
Evangelists reflected both
the way in which they be¬
gan their Gospels and an
aspect of the life of Christ.
Matthew was represented
as a winged man because

his gospel starts with the
human genealogy of
Christ. The human figure
also represents Christ’s
Incarnation or birth.

Mark was represented as
a lion. His Gospel begins
dramatically with the
preaching of John the
Baptist, described as a
“voice crying in the wil¬
derness” like the roar of a
lion. The lion also stood
for Christ’s resurrection.
In the Middle Ages lion
cubs were thought to be
stillborn and roared into
life by their mother. An

ox or calf was the symbol
of Luke, whose Gospel
opens with an account of
Zacharias making sacrifices
in the temple. Sacrificial
animals such as oxen and
calves are also used to rep¬
resent Christ as the
atoning sacrifice for hu¬
man sin. Lastly, John was
symbolized by an eagle.
His gospel begins with
Christ as the Word of
God, existing in heaven
before the Incarnation.
The eagle also represents
Christ’s ascension into
heaven.

In this i Oth-century manuscript, Christ is enthroned in the center; the four evangelists
are depicted in the comers, with their allegorical symbols in the adjacent circles.

THE THREE CULTURES THAT MADE THE MIDDLE AGES * 15

Calendars: Bewlattips of Ute

The Julian calendar, based on the seasons and the sun,
was the basic calendarfrom Roman times thorough the
Middle Ages .

C alendars group days to
regulate religious ob¬
servance, business,
agriculture, government,
and daily life. Calendars
were developed according
to both solar and lunar
cycles. A solar calendar
calculates a year as a com¬
plete round of seasons,
or one revolution of the
earth around the sun
(roughly 365.25 days).

A lunar calendar relies
on moon cycles (from
one new moon to the
next). A lunar year of 12
moon cycles has only
about 354.33 days. In
order to keep a lunar
calendar from becoming
out-of- step with the sea¬
sons, extra days have to
be added.

By the time of Julius
Caesar, the Roman lunar
calendar was about three
months out of sync with
the sun’s equinoxes, or
seasons. In 45 b.c. he re¬
formed the calendar on
the advice of Sosigenes of
Alexandria. The resulting
solar calendar became
known as the Julian Cal¬
endar after the emperor.
The old lunar calendar
was abandoned. In use
during the Middle Ages,
the Julian Calendar has

365 days with a leap (366-
day) year every four
years.

Because the year is ac¬
tually a little shorter than
365.25 days, discrepancies
continued to appear. In
1582 Pope Gregory XIII
revised the calendar yet
again by dropping 10 days.
The Gregorian Calendar,
which is used today,
brought the Vernal Equi¬
nox back to when it had
occurred in the time of
Julius Caesar. Gregory
eliminated the leap year in
years beginning a century
unless they are divisible by
400. (For instance, 2000
will be a leap year, but
1900 was not.)

The system of number¬
ing years before or after the
birth of Christ was designed
by an abbot, Dionysius
Exiguus, who lived in the
late 5th century a.d. The
abbreviation a.d. stands for
anno domini (in the year of
the Lord in Latin), and
B.C. represents the period
before Christ. Unfortu¬
nately, the abbot made a
mistake in calculating the
date of Jesus’ birth. Com¬
paring the Gospels with
other historical events in
Roman and Jewish history,
historians now know that
he was actually bom be¬
tween a.d. 4 and a.d. 6
rather than the year a.d. 1,
as popularly believed.

men in her Christian group were tom apart
by wild beasts, including bears, leopards,
and boars.

But Perpetua and Felicity, another
woman who had just given birth, were
gored by an enraged cow: “Perpetua was
first thrown, and fell upon her loins. And
when she had sat upright, her robe being
rent at the side, she drew it over to cover
her thigh, mindful rather of modesty than
of pain. Next, looking for a pin, she
likewise pinned up her disheveled hair;
for it was not meet [acceptable] that a
martyr should suffer with hair disheveled,
lest she should seem to grieve in her

glory. So she stood up; and when she saw
Felicity smitten down, she went up and
gave her her hand and raised her up. And
both of them stood up together and (the
hardness of the people being now sub¬
dued) were called back to the Gate of
Life.” Felicity and Perpetua survived the
first onslaught of the animals, but were
later executed by swords.

On the whole, the persecutions prob¬
ably strengthened adherence to Christianity,
because the crowds were impressed by the
strength of the martyrs’ beliefs. But the real
boost to Christianity’s popularity came when
Emperor Constantine converted in 313.
Constantine’s father, Constantinius Chlorus,
was the caesar, or junior emperor, in charge
of the westernmost provinces of the em¬
pire. His mother, Helena, was a Christian,
who eventually went to Jerusalem and
purportedly discovered the site of the Holy
Sepulcher (the tomb of Jesus). To ensure
that Constantine’s father remained loyal,
Diocletian, the senior emperor, insisted
that Constantine be raised in his own court
as both a pupil and a hostage. After his
father’s death, Constantine broke free of
the court, escaping on horses that were
stationed at convenient intervals to carry
mail to the west. Fearing pursuit,
Constantine hamstrung the horses at each
post stop by cutting their leg tendons.
Once in the west, he raised an army to fight
the other contenders for his father’s posi¬
tion. On the eve of a decisive battle that
would make him emperor of the whole
empire, he had a dream in which he saw a
cloud pass before the sun and heard the
words, “In this sign you will conquer” (in
hoc vinci). The next day he saw the sign, a

16 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

circle with a cross in it, during the battle and the New Testament as the manifestation of
converted to Christianity. God in people and the Church) were con-

Constantine's grasp of Christianity was sidered divine, then the religion would no
limited. He continued to worship Mythras longer be monotheistic. They further main-
and the Roman pantheon of gods, but he tained that ifjesus, the Holy Ghost, and God
won over Christians by revoking the edicts were all divine, then Christianity began to
of persecution. Only toward the end of his resemble the polytheism of the old Greco-
life was he baptized. Despite his poor un- Roman system. Tempers ran high over the
derstanding of the Christian faith, he had a question ofjesus’ divinity; street fights even
profound influence on the development of broke out over the controversy. In a similar
the religion. Following his lead, many people debate a century later, St. John Crysostom
of all classes converted, including patricians, wrote that when he asked the price of bread
This large number of new converts pre- in the market he was given an argument
sented certain problems, however. Some, about the nature of Christ in return,
like the emperor, did not understand the In 325 Constantine called a council of
religion, and others believed that only their bishops at Nicaea to decide the question of
interpretations of the doctrines were cor- Jesus’ divinity once and for all. He disliked
rect. One of the early disputes arose from the civil unrest the dispute had created, but
the question of whether Jesus was divine or he may also have been discomforted by his
human. Arguing for the humanity ofjesus own doubts about the power of a religion
was a monk named Anus; the movement that harbored so much controversy. At the
that arose from his teachings was called council, Constantine oversaw the adoption
Arianism. The Arians argued that if both of the Nicene Creed, in which the concept
Jesus and the Holy Ghost (who appears in of the Trinity was formulated. According

Gladiators fight a variety of mid
beasts in this fourth-century mosaic.
Fighters risked their lives in these
animal fights to the delight of
amphitheater crowds.

THE THREE CULTURES THAT MADE THE MIDDLE AGES • 17

The night before Constantine’s deci¬
sive battle for control of the Roman
Empire, he had a dream about a cross
in a circle and the words in hoc
vinci (“in this sign conquer”). The
next day the same symbol appeared to
him in the clouds. The sign influ¬
enced his decision to become a
Christian.

Pilgrims to the Holy Land brought
back various souvenirs from their pil¬
grimage. The sixth-century metal
flask has a representation of the As¬
cension of Christ and contained oil
from lamps that burned at holy
shrines.

to the creed, God was the only divinity, but
he had three persons: God the Father, God
the Son, and the Holy Ghost. The council
and its decision would have lasting implica¬
tions. Following Constantine’s example,
emperors and lay rulers would assume a
leading role in mediating disputes in the
Church throughout the rest of the Middle
Ages. Although the council dealt a great
blow to Arianism, the movement did not
die out immediately. While it continued,
missionaries converted many of the barbar¬
ian tribes to the Arian version ofChristianity.
Thus when the tribes came into the empire,
they were separated from the native popu¬
lation not only by language and culture but
also by their type of Christianity.

Early Christians who longed for what
they perceived as the “good old days,”
before these hordes of Christians-
in-name-only joined the Church to please
the emperor, began to retreat to the desert
to practice their religion. St. Anthony was
the most famous of the desert fathers, but he
soon discovered, to his consternation, that
others were eager to join him in his retreat.
He had to organize his followers into a
community of hermits. Gradually, monas¬

teries—communities of men dedicated to
celibacy and worship—became the com¬
mon refuge from worldly concerns.

Women also wanted to seek salvation
through retreat, but Christian leaders gen¬
erally did not consider the desert an
acceptable place for them. In particular, St.
Jerome (c. 340-420), who had strong opin¬
ions on most matters relating to the practice
of Christianity, felt that the excesses of
hermits were not truly godly. He cited as
evidence their poor hygiene and their
beards. (He commented that if beards con¬
tributed to salvation, then all goats would
be saved.) But St. Jerome was sympathetic
to the women in his own family who did
not want to marry for religious reasons, and
organized a community in which women
could live apart from society as nuns.

The writings of one early nun, Egeria,
provide a sense of the cohesion of the
Christian world and the peace in the empire
during the fourth century. Historians specu¬
late that Egeria came from a nunnery
somewhere along the Atlantic, because in
the records of her travels she compares the
Red Sea to an ocean. Between 381 and 384,
she made an extended pilgrimage to the
sites of the Old and New Testaments and
wrote of her journeys for the benefit of her
sisters back home. She was an inexhaustible
traveler, willing to climb mountains and go
out of her way to visit shrines and holy
monks. Among the hermits living in nu¬
merous cells surrounding one shrine at
Golgotha she was reunited with a holy
deaconess named Marthana, whom she had
befriended in Jerusalem, where they had
both been on pilgrimage. Marthana had
become the leader of a group of virgins.

18 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

While at Golgotha Egeria wrote of the
rituals of Holy Week—including fasting
and night-long services—and finally of
glimpsing a piece of the cross on which
Jesus had been crucified: “As long as the
holy Wood is on the table, the bishop sits
with his hands resting on either end of it
and holds it down, and the deacons round
him keep watch over it. They guard it like
this because what happens now is that all
the people come up one by one . . . stoop
over it and kiss the Wood. . . . But on one
occasion one of them bit off a piece of the
holy Wood and stole it away.” Egeria’s
account gives a flavor of the devotion that
early Christians felt for the religion, and
records their desire to visit the shrines of its
origin.

Among those who found Christianity
attractive were Roman patricians, such as
Augustine of Hippo, who had received a
traditional education in Greek and Latin.
Drawing from their intellectual back¬
ground, the patricians tried to fit Christian
teachings into the context of Greek phi¬
losophy and rhetoric. The greatest of these
thinkers were known as the Doctors of the
Church. Among them was St. Jerome, who
translated the Bible from Hebrew and Greek
into Latin. (His translation, called the Latin
Vulgate Bible, is still used in the Catholic
Church.) Jerome’s pagan heritage caused
him considerable anxiety. He had a dream
in which Jesus admonished him by saying,
“You are a Ciceronian [an admirer of the
essays of the Roman orator Cicero] rather
than a Christian,” because Jerome valued
his rhetorical training so highly. Ambrose
(c. 340-397), the bishop ofMilan, used his
great skill as an orator to convert his listeners

to Christianity. Indeed, he was such a
persuasive preacher that patrician fathers
supposedly did not want their daughters to
hear his sermons out of fear that they would
take vows of perpetual virginity and refuse
marriages that were advantageous to the
family. Among Ambrose’s converts was
Augustine of Hippo. Augustine became
deeply interested in reconciling Greek phi¬
losophy with Christianity. The problem
was not a new one. In the early first century
A.D. Jewish scholars, including Philo Judaes,
had tried to combine Biblical study with
philosophy.

Even though Augustine died just be¬
fore one of the so-called barbarian tribes
took over his home city in North Africa,
his writings only indirectly reflected the
major changes such peoples would bring
to the Roman Empire. Their contribution
to the unique culture of the Middle Ages
can best be understood by looking at their
way oflife before they entered the empire.
Historians have categorized the invaders as

St. Jerome, a doctor of the Church,
translated the New Testament from
Greek into Latin. His translation is
still used in the Catholic Church and
is known as the Vulgate. This 15th
century illustration of Jerome in his
study is obviously updated because the
scene behind him is Florence.

THE THREE CULTURES THAT MADE THE MIDDLE A 6 E S • 19

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Ora/ tradition preserved the Old En¬
glish poem Beowulf for centuries .
The first written version dates from
the late 10th century. The edges of
the page were charred by fire in
1731. The letters are easy to deci¬
pher, but the words are in Old
English, which is close to German.

Germanic (also called Gothic) because
their language fell into a German linguistic
group as opposed to the Greco-Roman or
Celtic linguistic groups that had predomi¬
nated in western Europe. They came into
the empire from regions to the north and
east, including Scandinavia. The Ger¬
manic tribes’ values differed greatly from
those of the Romans. Mediterranean civi¬
lization was based on cities and agriculture;
the invaders preferred rural areas and
hunting. Roman government was central¬
ized; the tribes were organized loosely
around kings, fighting bands, and family
groups. Roman society had a high degree
of literacy; the tribespeople were illiterate.
Romans valued their public and private
baths; the Germans were, to Roman nostrils,
a dirty and smelly group.

Despite their differences, the Romans
had frequent contact with the Germanic
tribes on their borders through conquest,
trade, and employment as slaves and merce¬
naries. In the 1st century a.d., a Roman
historian, Tacitus, wrote a book about the
tribes called Germania. Tacitus never visited
the regions he described, however, so his
information is not entirely reliable. Never¬
theless, his book shows that this inquiring
man was able to learn a great deal about the
tribes’ very different culture from soldiers,
merchants, and even slaves. Other informa¬
tion about the barbarians comes from their
laws, which they had transcribed in Latin in
imitation of Roman law; scraps of their

The struggle with the invading
Germanic tribes so preoccupied the
Romans that in about 180-90 one
Roman had a bas relief of the battle
between the two armies depicted on
his sarcophagus.

literature; and the evidence yielded by mod¬
em archaeology.

The economy of the Germanic tribes
was based on simple agriculture, hunting,
and plunder. For the most part, women and
slaves cultivated grains and cared for do¬
mesticated animals, while the men hunted
and fought in raiding parties. Gambling,
storytelling, and drunken feasts served as
pastimes for the men. In contrast to the
Mediterranean taste for wine, they drank
fermented brews of grain (beer) and honey
(mead). According to Tacitus, the men
would gamble until they had no stakes left
but their own freedom. Some even gambled
that away and became slaves.

In the mead halls men told stories of
heroic adventures. Most of these were part
of an oral tradition that was not preserved,
but a few were written down later. The
most famous is Beowulf, a story, written in
Old English (Anglo-Saxon), which was set
in Denmark. For 12 years a monster,
Grendel, had ravaged the king’s mead hall
and devoured warriors. The poem de¬
scribes his entry into the hall:

Then came from the moors under the
misty hills

Grendel creeping—he bore God’s ire

The evil-doer intended to entrap some

of the kin of men in the high hall....

The creature came then journeying to
the hall

deprived of joy. The doors soon gave
way,

bound fast with forged bands,

after he touched them with his hands.

Beowulf, a young prince of the Geats,
arrived from southern Sweden and offered
to rid the kingdom of Grendel. When the

20 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Sutton Hop: Ship Burial for a Chieftain

I n the summer of 1939,
the nchest find of
Anglo-Saxon treasure
ever discovered was un¬
earthed on an estate in
East Anglia. The owner
of the estate was curious
about a group of barrows,
or burial mounds, on her
property. She arranged for
a local archeologist to in¬
vestigate. The early results
were disappointing: three
small mounds showed
signs of having been
robbed. The largest
mound, however, proved
to be the magnificent, un¬
disturbed burial chamber
of a powerful chieftain.

An entire ship, 86 feet
long, had been buried in
the large barrow, and
inside it was a chamber
that contained armor,

weapons, bowls, drinking
vessels, and a large quan¬
tity of gold and garnet
jewelry. This mound,
too, would have been
robbed, had it not been
for plowing in the later
Middle Ages that re¬
moved much of one end.
When treasure-hunters
dug into the mound in
the 16th century, they
dug into the center as it
then existed thinking that
it would contain treasure,
but were misled by the
missing part. Although
no doubt disappointed,
the would-be looters
apparendy stopped to
eat a meal before leaving,
as evidenced by pottery
and part of a cook-fire
found during the 1939
excavation.

Among the treasures in the Sutton Hoo burial is a finely worked shoulder clasp
for a leather tunic. The fine workmanship in gold, glass, and garnets indicates
the level of skill that Germanic artisans possessed .

monster came to the mead hall that night and
ate a Geat, Beowulf tore off his arm, and
Grendel retreated to his lair to die. The Geats
rejoiced in the prince’s victory until the next
night, when Grendel’s mother came seeking
revenge and killed one of the king’s men.
Beowulf then pursued her into a cave at the
bottom of a sea, where he killed her.

Beowulf s return to Sweden with rich
rewards was brief. The king of the Geats
died, and Beowulf returned and served as
their king for 50 years. But his story ended as
it began, fighting a monster. The aged
Beowulf again killed the enemy, but this
time was mortally wounded. The story of
Beowulf provides a sense of the tribes’ wan¬
dering and mingling even before they moved
into Roman territory. It also shows that they
viewed nature as containing threatening,
hostile elements, compared with the Roman’s
view of nature as providing an abundance of
food for their benefit.

Germanic society was organized accord¬
ing to both family ties and a social hierarchy
of kings and war chiefs under whom the
warriors served. Below these groups were

slaves. War chiefs attracted a warrior band, or
commitatus (literally, a group of fighters who
have gathered together), by their prowess in
fighting and by their success in taking plun¬
der, which they distributed to their followers.
Family groups and the commitatus formed
loose units, but they coalesced into a tribe
under the leadership of a king, particularly
when they faced an external threat.

The tribes near the Roman Empire’s
borders were partially romanized. They
knew something of the Roman economy,
which was based on money rather than
barter. They also had some knowledge of
the Latin language and Roman military
organization and law. Despite this expo¬
sure, however, the Germanic tribes
preserved their own language and laws.
Their laws dealt mainly with violence in
interpersonal relationships. Because family
honor was an important value, when a
family member was killed, his or her rela¬
tives were bound to kill the murderer or
one of his relatives in revenge. Such ven¬
dettas between families were obviously
disruptive to the peace of the whole group.

so laws evolved calling for murderers to pay
wergeld (human payment), or money com¬
pensation, to their victims’ families. The
amount depended on the value of the
person killed. For instance, the murder of a
king or a woman of childbearing age de¬
manded very high wergeld. Other
losses—such as the loss of limbs, teeth, and
virginity—also required monetary com¬
pensation. The compensation for knocking
out a front tooth was greater than for a
molar because of its ill effect on a person’s
looks. Likewise, a thumb was worth a great
deal more than a little finger.

Other laws governed theft, rape, adul¬
tery, and treason. Even relations with the
Roman population were incorporated into
the laws as the tribes moved across the
empire’s borders. A Frankish (the Franks
invaded northern Gaul) law read: “If any¬
one has assaulted and plundered a free
person, and it be proved on him, he shall be
sentenced to 2500 denars, which make 63
shillings. If a Roman has plundered a Frank,
the above law shall be observed. But if a
Frank has plundered a Roman, he shall be

THE THREE CULTURES THAT MADE THE MIDDLE AGES • 21

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The Germanic tribes had already begun to
move into the western empire by the early
fifth century. By that time, the Anglo-Saxons
had settled permanently in Britain, and the
Franks had crossed the Rhine into Gaul. But
this migration occurred with greater speed
and urgency when a completely unromanized
tribe, the Huns, forced the Germanic tribes to
seek protection within the empire. The Huns
were a nomadic people who traveled swiftly
on horseback. Like other tribes, they tended
to splinter into smaller groups, but they
moved as a “horde” when poor pastures in
central Asia drove them to migrate. Jordanes,
a thoroughly romanized Goth, described the
Huns as “small, foul and skinny; their fees
were seamed with gashes, their noses broad
and flat. They dressed in coarse linen tunics,
which they never changed until they rotted;
on their heads they wore a sort of helmet
made with skins of wild rats patched to¬
gether.” He also said that they carried raw
meat under their saddles all day and then ate
it raw for supper as a sort of early version of
steak tartare. Their drink was fermented
mare's milk.

Jordanes had good reason to dislike the
Huns. In time, the Huns so completely
dominated the Gothic tribes of central Eur¬
ope that they became indistinguishable
from them. One small, remaining group of
Goths, known as the Visigoths or west
Goths, begged to be allowed into the
Balkans. Thinking that they would be a use¬
ful buffer between the empire and the Huns,
the Byzantine emperor setded them south of
the Danube in 376. The emperor also agreed
to pay the Visigoths for fighting, but when
he reneged, they moved on into Italy under
the leadership of their king, Alaric.

The emperor in the west, a young man
named Honorius, panicked at the Visigoths'
arrival, and retreated to the marshes of
Ravenna, thereby allowing them to sack
Rome in 410. Alaric gave his army three
days to plunder the city; they then moved
on with their booty and hostages. The
image of a defeated, overrun Rome had a
profound influence at the time and long
after. St. Jerome wrote of his despair: “My
tongue sticks to the roof of my mouth and
sobs choke my speech.” The animosity the
Romans felt toward Alaric was so great that,

when he died, his followers feared his grave
would be defiled. Legend holds that they
diverted a stream and had captives bury him
under its bed. They then killed the captives
and redirected the stream, Alaric's body
lying beneath it. To this day, no one knows
where Alaric is buried.

The Visigoths chose Athaulf as Alaric’s
successor. The new king decided to move
the tribe west through Gaul and into Spain,
where they eventually established the
Visigothic kingdom. Among the hostages
they took with them was Galla Placidia,
sister ofEmperor Honorius. In fulfilment of
an old prophesy, “the queen of the south
married the king of the north” in January
414. At their Roman wedding Athaulf
deferred to his bride, letting her lead the
procession. Her lavish wedding gifts prob¬
ably came from the sack of Rome.

Tradition has it that Galla Palacidia con¬
sented to the marriage and had a strong
influence on her husband. She supposedly
led him to accept Christianity and to be¬
come a defender of the Roman Empire
rather than its invader. Certainly, his policy
changed as he tried to form an alhance and
friendship with his brother-in-law,
Honorius. When Athaulf was murdered in
Barcelona, Galla Placidia returned to Rome
and married a Roman. She concluded her
eventful life by ruling in the name of her
infant son, who was made emperor.

The Huns continued to harass the Ger¬
manic tribes and threatened to invade the
empire. Their leader from 433 to 453 was
Attila, whose reputation for brutality is
firmly planted in western European culture.
At the time he was called the “Scourge of

22 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

God. ” Attila had his sights set on Rome. He
claimed that he was coming to liberate
Honoria, a Roman princess who had been
disciplined for having an affair. She sent a
ring to Attila proposing marriage. A
Roman-Visigothic army forced him to re¬
treat, but within a year he was plundering
his way toward Rome, where only the
city’s bishop stood in his way. Again, prob¬
ably because of plague in his army, Attila
retreated. Taking yet another wife to join
the many he had already, he died on his
wedding night, perhaps of a surfeit of food
and drink.

The Hunnish incursions again moved
Germanic peoples to regroup into invading
tribes. The Vandals moved through Gaul
and Spain to set up a kingdom centered in
Carthage, in North Africa. Augustine died
only months before Hippo fell to them.
The Vandals took to the sea as pirates, and
in 455 they too sacked Rome. Their raid¬
ing left a permanent legacy in the English
language—the word vandalism. Their name
also remains as Andalusia, a province in
southern Spain.

Once again Italy lay open to attack. The
group that moved in this time was the
Ostrogoths (or east Goths). The parts of
Gaul that were not controlled by the
Visigoths were invaded by the Burgundians
and Franks, whose story will be told in the
next chapter.

By the end of the fifth century, Rome,
the founding city of the empire, had been
sacked and its earlier prominence super¬
seded by Constantinople. The Roman
Empire had fragmented into a number of
smaller kingdoms dominated by tribal lead¬

ers. However, the eastern part of the
empire, including Constantinople, re¬
mained wealthy and powerful, and its
emperors came to resemble eastern poten¬
tates. Also during this period, the Christian
church gained considerable stature and
power among the Roman population. It
had preserved Latin, the language of Ro¬
man culture, and in the west bishops
increasingly took on the roles of Roman
officials. They effectively governed cities
and the surrounding countryside (called
dioceses) for their Germanic overlords.
With so much change taking place in the
space of a century, the lives of people
caught up in the new religious enthusi¬
asms and in the myriad invasions and
settlements also changed dramatically.

The Vandals quickly assumed the
comfortable life of the upper-class Ro¬
mans, adopting their dress and living
habits in northern Africa. They even
learned to use Roman ships, and with
a fleet they attacked and destroyed
Rome in 455.

THE THREE CULTURES THAT MADE THE MIDDLE AGES • 23

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Chapter 2

Settling Down in
the Old Empire

Clovis was baptized after he promised
his wife that he would convert to
Christianity if he won an important
battle. When he was successful, he
also had all his troops baptized with
him. This 14th<entury manuscript
shows a bishop pouring the baptismal
water over the king's head.

M ajor historical events usually cre¬
ate traumas and drastic changes
in individual lives. The Visi¬
goths’ sack of Rome in 410 had
an enormous impact on the invaders and the
invaded. One Roman of patrician rank, for
example, wrote to a friend complaining that
the Visigoths had stolen his land, which
ruined him and reduced him to beggary.
Strangely, some years later one of the plun¬
derers located him and offered to pay for the
land he had taken. Although the Roman
claimed that he did not receive the fair
market value, he confessed that the return of
a part of his wealth helped him to again hold
his head up in the Roman society of Gaul.

With the invasion of Rome, people lost
not only land. Many lost their lives, and
many others faced the possibility of marriage
to people whose appearance and customs
were strange.

For people living in Europe from the fifth
through the seventh centuries, waves of
change altered or removed many of their
familiar institutions. As a result, their chil¬
dren had to be reared differently from the
way they themselves had been. For tribes
accustomed to moving to greener pastures

and new forests when they had exhausted
the old, becoming part of the empire meant
encountering people who lived in one
place and cultivated the same land year after
year. Loose tribal confederations became
kingships (rex was the Roman term for
their leaders); Germanic laws had to be
reconciled with Roman laws; and for the
Germanic tribes individual ownership of
land created an entirely new concept of
making a living, that is, from cultivation
rather than plunder. Adding to the confu¬
sion were Roman prejudices against the
Germanic tribes. The Roman population,
now Christian, regarded their new neigh¬
bors as land grabbers and heretics (religious
dissenters who held incorrect views of
Christianity), because many of the tribes
had converted to Arianism (the interpreta¬
tion of Christianity that had been banned in
325 at the Council of Nicaea).

The letters and some poetry of a patrician
Roman named Apollinaris Sidonius (431—
489) provide an insight into the experiences
of at least one man and his correspondents
during this turbulent period. Sidonius had
followed the traditional career pattern for
his class. He had entered public service,

SETTLING DOWN IN THE OLD EMPIRE • 25

Converted tribesmen often used
both pagan and Christian symbols
on their tombstones. This stone has
the typical double-headed serpent
from pagan art; the flask at the
man's feet and the sword and comb
in his hands suggest that these are
pagan grave goods . The other side
of the stone, however, has a repre¬
sentation of Christ carrying a spear.

becoming an official in Rome. He was of
such high status that he married the
emperor’s daughter. After retiring to his
country estates, he spent the final 17 years
of his life serving as bishop of Clermont in
what is now central France. As the Church
became the last vestige of the old imperial
system, many members of the patrician
class became bishops and continued to
administer both spiritual comfort and civic
services to the urban population. Like
many other bishops, Sidonius was charged
with the task of organizing the defense of
his city against the Visigoths and other
tribes who besieged the countryside in the
470s. He wrote in 473: “Our own town
lives in terror of a sea of tribes which find
in it an obstacle to their expansion and
surge in arms all around it.” When the
town fell, he spent three years as a prisoner
of the Goths.

Despite the sack of Rome, Sidonius
continued to consider the city “the abode
of law, the training-school of letters, the
font of honors, the head of the world, the
motherland of freedom, the city unique
upon earth where none but the barbarian
and slave is foreign.” But he was fully
aware that the “Roman state has sunk to
. . . extreme misery.” Writing to his
friends, Sidonius praised his correspon¬
dents’ dedication to keeping the study of
Latin and Greek alive: “The Roman

tongue is long banished from Belgium and
the Rhine; but if its splendor has any¬
where survived, it is surely with you; our
jurisdiction is fallen into decay along the
frontier, but while you live and preserve
your eloquence, the Latin language stands
unshaken.”

Sidonius also wrote of the transforma¬
tion taking place among the tribespeople.
He described Sigismer, a Germanic prince,
who walked at the center of a victory
procession:

With charming modesty he went
afoot amid his body guards and foot¬
men, in flame-red mantle, with
much glint of ruddy gold, and gleam
of snowy silken tunic, his fair hair,
red cheeks and white skin according
with the three hues of his equip¬
ment. But the chiefs and allies who
bore him company were dread of as¬
pect. . . . Their feet were laced in
boots of bristly hide reaching to the
heels; ankles and legs were exposed.
They wore tight tunics of varied
color hardly descending to their bare
knees, the sleeves covering only the
upper arms.

Cloaks of skins secured with brooches com¬
pleted their garb.

Bishop Gregory of Tours (538—594),
writing about a hundred years later, pre¬
sented a very different picture of Gaul. By
this time, the Visigoths had moved on into
Spain, and a new tribe, the Franks, had
crossed the Rhine and setded in what was
once Roman territory. The area eventually
took the name France from this tribe. The
Franks had had little contact with Romans
and had not converted to any version of
Christianity. Bishop Gregory’s own world
was far removed from Rome and the impe¬

rial traditions, but Christianity was strong.
He wrote of his embarrassingly poor Latin,
which indicates that he was not schooled by
the old standards. His interests also show a
shift of perspective from that of Sidonius.
He recounted stories of brutal Frankish
rulers and relished miraculous events rather
than classical literary works. For example,
Gregory wrote of an army of Franks who
plundered the church of the holy St. Vincent,
a martyr who died for his Christian beliefs.
The troops found it filled with treasure that
had been deposited by Christians who
trusted in the saint’s power to save their
goods. Unable to open the church, the
Franks set it afire. When they tried to
retrieve the goods inside, however, divine
vengeance was visited on them. According
to Gregory, their hands were “supematu-
rally burned, and sent forth a great smoke,
like that which rises above a fire.”

Gregory also recounted the vicious poli¬
tics of the Franks, who gradually seized all
of Gaul. Clovis (481/2-511) emerged as
the victorious ruler after many battles in
which his family members were often killed.
Gregory reported an emotional speech
Clovis delivered before a large gathering of
Franks: “Oh woe is me, for I travel among
strangers and have none of my kinsfolk to
help me!” Gregory went on to suggest that
“he did not refer to their deaths out of grief,
but craftily, to see if he could bring to light
some new relatives to kill.”

Clovis and the Franks, however, were
set apart from other tribes by their conver¬
sion to Roman Christianity, that is, the
Christian beliefs of the bishop of Rome
(also known as the pope) as opposed to
those of the Anan heretics. Clovis married

26 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

a Christian woman, Clotilda. Her uncle
had killed her father and drowned her
mother by tying a stone around her neck.
Clotilda’s sister had retreated to a nunnery,
and Clotilda might have followed suit if
Clovis had not been taken by her beauty
and married her. Gregory of Tours wrote
that Clotilda immediately tried to convert
Clovis to Christianity. She persuaded him
to allow the first two sons she bore to be
baptized, but because they died soon after
birth her husband remained unconvinced
about the new religion’s worth. Finally, in
a battle with another tribe, Clovis looked to
heaven and promised to convert if he won.
After his victory, he fulfilled his promise by
being baptized along with 3,000 of his
followers. Clovis knew even less than
Constantine about Christianity, but be¬
cause he and the Franks were baptized as
Roman Christians, they were loyal to the
pope. Later, when the Church needed
help, its leaders looked to the Franks for aid.

Clovis unified the Franks under a
long-lasting dynasty, the Merovingians—a
name derived from a mythical ancestor,
Merowech. The Franks practiced partible
inheritance—that is, a father’s lands were
divided equally among his sons. Upon their
father’s death, brothers would fight each
other until one dominated. Each change of
king, therefore, resulted in the same sorts of
brutal fights between brothers in which
Clovis had engaged. The queens were no
less capable of bloodthirsty tactics. Despite
such fighting, the Franks became a strong
power in Europe. They successfully assimi¬
lated their kin from across the Rhine and
encouraged missionaries to convert their
brethren.

Italy enjoyed a generation of peace and
order under another tribal invasion, the
Ostrogoths (or east Goths). Their leader
was Theodoric (reigned 471—526), who
had been a hostage at the court in Con¬
stantinople and therefore was very familiar
with imperial government. Although the
Ostrogoths were Arians, Theodoric did not
try to persuade the non-Anan population
to convert. Rather than destroying what
remained of the Roman Empire and Ro¬
man ways, he worked with the conquered
people to restore their aqueducts, repair
their buildings, and improve the general
order and economy of the Italian peninsula.
In return for aiding the local population and
defending them against other tribes, the
Ostrogoths taxed a third of the proceeds
from the estates of the wealthy. This policy
was kinder to the local population than the
outright plunder and confiscation of goods
and land that other tribes had committed.

With the establishment of a general
peace between mainstream Christians and
heretical Arians, between Romans and
Ostrogoths, learning once again flourished
in Italy. Boethius (c, 480—524), a Roman
who became an official for the Ostrogoths,
realized that Greek might die out as a
language of learning. Thus he translated
portions of Greek philosophy, including
the entire works of Plato and parts of
Aristotle’s writings. His translations were
used throughout the Middle Ages.
Cassiodorus (c. 490-585), another scholar
who was close to Theodoric, retired from
government service and became the abbot
of a monastery. He set his monks the task of
copying and preserving the works of Chris¬
tianity and of pagan Greece and Rome.

Amalsuntha, daughter of a sixth-cen-
tury Byzantine emperor , became
regent for her young son on her
father’s death. This ivory shows her
holding an orb, the symbol of ruling,
wearing a typical Byzantine crown
and sitting on a throne surrounded by
pillars to suggest a palace.

SETTLING DOWN IN THE OLD EMPIRE • 27

Symmachus and his son-in-law
Boethius were Romans who sewed as
officials under the Ostrogothic king
Theodoric. But when the Pope began
to attack the Ostrogoths for their
Arian heresy, Theodoric turned
against his Roman officials and they
were executed.

By the early sixth century, the world of
learning was much changed from the time
of Jerome and Augustine. Preservation of
the past became the overwhelming preoc¬
cupation for the surviving Romans, as it
had for Sidonius. Even Boethius’s great
work, The Consolation of Philosophy, had
more to say about the comforts of contem¬
plating Greek philosophy than it did about
his Christian present.

The comfortable compromise between
Theodoric and the Pope did not long
survive. The Roman emperor of the east,
Justinian (527-565), began an ambitious
program to reconquer Italy, North Africa,
and Spain—the wealthiest parts of the former
western empire. The expeditions were very
expensive, however, and Justinian’s victo¬
ries were few. The Byzantine armies defeated
the Vandals but could retain only a small
portion of North Africa. They did gain
Sicily and southern Italy; however, the
protracted campaigns weakened the
Ostrogoths and destroyed more towns, vil¬
las, and Roman roads and viaducts than all
the previous Gothic invasions. The senate
finally ceased to meet, and the last public
entertainment in the Coliseum was held in
549. Only Ravenna remained as a glorious
outpost of Byzantine civilization in Italy.

The mid-sixth century was a grim time
for Italy. Bubonic plague—the disease that
would be called the Black Death in the 14th
century—decimated the population. As a
result of the Ostrogoths’ campaigns and the
plague, Italy lay open to invasion by a
savage new tribe, the Lombards. As earlier
in the face of the Huns, the bishop of Rome
was left alone to ward off invasion. He

Mysterious Plague Kills Hundreds in Marseilles

T he bubonic plague,
like many other epi¬
demics, comes in
cycles. The first plague
of the medieval period
occurred during the
reign of Justinian (527-
565); the second, called
“The Black Death,”
struck in 1348. Plague
is a bacterial infection
normally spread to hu¬
mans through the bite
of a household flea that
has picked up the bac¬
teria from an infected
household rat. Gregory
of Tours, who saw the
plague’s effects first¬
hand, wrote a very
accurate description of

the clinical symptoms of
the disease:

At this time it was re¬
ported that Marseilles
was suffering from a se¬
vere epidemic of
swelling in the groin. . . .
I want to tell you exactly
how this came about. . . .
a ship from Spain put
into port with the usual
kind of cargo, unfortu¬
nately also bringing with
it the source of infection.
Quite a few of the
townsfolk purchased ob¬
jects from the cargo and
in less than no time a
house in which eight
people lived was left
completely deserted, all

the inhabitants having
caught the disease. The
infection did not spread
through the residential
quarter immediately.
Some time passed and
then, like a cornfield set
alight, the entire town
was suddenly ablaze with
the pestilence. ... At
the end of two months
the plague burned itself
out. The population re¬
turned to Marseilles,
thinking themselves
safe. Then the disease
started again and all
who had come back
died. On several occa¬
sions later on Marseilles
suffered from an epi¬
demic of this sort.

The plague killed three-fourths of the people that it infected, so burial of the dead be¬
came a problem. In some places mass burials replaced the usual ritual of washing the
body, putting it in a shroud (pictured in the center), and putting it in a coffin.

28 • THE MIDDLE ABES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

During the Middle Ages, sick people
made pilgrimages to the shrines of
saints, hoping to be cured by praying
at the tomb or consuming dust from
it. A superstructure with niches pro¬
tected the tomb from being entirely
scraped away by the pious; it allowed
them to get only part of their bodies
close to the tomb.

managed to preserve Rome and the land
around it, but the Lombards took over most
of the northern part of the peninsula around
Milan, which became known as Lom¬
bardy. The Lombards represented yet
another challenge for conversion and as¬
similation into something resembling the
Roman way of life.

The brutality of the times is depicted in
a story about a Lombard king and his wife.
The queen’s father had been a rival chief¬
tain, whom her husband had killed. Proud
of his deed, he carried the father-in-law’s
skull about as a trophy. During a banquet,
he filled the skull with wine and forced his
wife to drink his health. She complied but
vowed to murder her husband—a promise
she kept. Despite the gruesome infighting
of the Lombard royal family, eventually the
Lombards, too, were Christianized.

Although the original written legal codes
of the Germanic tribes were intended to
keep the Roman and Germanic popula¬
tions separate, the distinctions between the
two could not be maintained. Intermar¬
riage frequently occurred, and the languages
blended to create the Romance (or Latin-
root) languages: Italian, French, Spanish,
and Romanian. The two groups slowly
assimilated into a common culture, but it is
not known how people felt about this
transition as it was taking place. Did Roman
fathers think that their Germanic sons-in-law
had crude table manners? Did Germanic
boys think that their dark-haired Roman
brides, whatever land and wealth that they
brought to the marriage, were less beautiful
(or more beautiful) than the blonde girls
they were used to? Did Roman women

resent becoming wives to husbands who
wore hides rather than tunics or had blond
hair and blue eyes rather than dark hair and
dark eyes? (Some women preferred a life in
a nunnery to marriage, but not necessarily
because they objected to the physical and
cultural characteristics of a prospective hus¬
band.) In any case, the invaders settled,
married into the local population, adopted
hybrid languages of Latin and Germanic
words, and produced children of mixed
ancestry. Indeed, the entire Ostrogothic
population was assimilated into the popula¬
tion of Italy. The western Mediterranean
culture as well as the appearance of its
people changed through genetic mixing
that introduced fairer skin and blond and
red hair into their population.

For some time the Romans managed to
keep for themselves the distinction of serv¬
ing as bishops in the old Roman towns.
Gregory of Tours, for example, boasted
that all but five of the bishops of Tours had
been connected with his family. But his
power and that of the other bishops de¬
pended on the tribal rulers. The bishops
governed the towns and their surrounding
countryside in a unit of land and govern¬
ment called the diocese. The church in
which the bishop officiated was called a
cathedral. Gregory of Tours described one
built in Clermont-Ferrand: “It is one hun¬
dred and fifty feet long, sixty feet wide
inside the nave and fifty feet high as far as the
vaulting. It has a rounded apse at the end,
and two wings of elegant design on either
side. The whole building is constructed in
the shape of a cross. It has fifty-two win¬
dows, seventy columns and eight doorways.

In it one is conscious of the fear of God and
of a great brightness.”

The cathedrals often contained the bones
of early Christian saints. Pious Christians
traveled to the shrines to cure their illnesses,
for the religious experience of being near
the body of a martyr, for the adventure of
travel, or for the opportunity to buy and sell
goods at their destination. They also left
gifts, including extensive land holdings, to
the cathedrals and churches that housed the
bones of notable saints. Gregory had par¬
ticular success as a bishop by making the
shrine of St. Martin of Tours one of the
most venerated stops for pilgrims. Another
famous shrine was that of St. Denis the
martyred, first bishop of Paris. His remains
rested in a large and wealthy monastery.
That monastery became even wealthier
when it established an annual fair that
attracted merchants from all over Europe as
well as the eastern Mediterranean.

Despite the popularity of St. Denis and
St. Martin among pilgrims, the status of
these saints was far lower than that of St.
Peter, one of Jesus’ original apostles. The
bishop of Rome held a special place in the
hierarchy of bishops because Rome had
been the center of the empire and because
Christian tradition was woven aroundjesus’
words to Peter: “Thou art Peter and on this
rock I shall build my church. ” According to
Christian tradition, Peter had founded the
first church in Rome and was martyred
there. The bishop of Rome, as the succes¬
sor of Peter, was considered the head of the
Church and came to be called pope or papa
(Latin for father). But the superior position
of the bishop of Rome also owed much to

SETTLING DOWN IN THE OLD EMPIRE • 29

Peter, as the favored apostle ofJesus,
held a place of special reverence in the
early Church. Tradition maintained
that he had founded the first Christian
church in Rome and had suffered a
martyr’s death in that city. In medieval
illustrations he is depicted carrying two
keys—the keys to heaven. The sym¬
bolism of the keys derives from words
Jesus said to Peter: “I will give you the
keys to the kingdom of heaven: What¬
ever you bind on earth will be
considered bound in heaven; whatever
you loose on earth shall be considered
loosed in heavenThe name Peter,
from the Greek word for rock (petraj,
becomes a pun when Jesus says “Thou
art Peter and on this rock I shall build
my church. ” The term “apostolic suc¬
cession” —which was used often by
medieval papacy—meant that the popes
were directly descended by ordination
from Peter and that they also held the
power of the two keys.

When monks took their final vows to
join a monastery, they received a ton-
sure—the hair on the top of their
heads was cut off. Here, St. Guthlac
(c. 674-714), an Anglo-Saxon, re¬
ceives a tonsure from a bishop while
his abbess and other nuns observe.

the able men who held the office and their
heroic leadership in both church and state
matters. For example, Leo the Great (pope
from 440-461) had defended Rome against
the Huns, and Gregory the Great (c. 540-
604) did much to increase the power of the
papacy through missionary activity, reform
of the church, and administration of the
papal estates around Rome.

While the peoples within the old em¬
pire were gradually being Christianized,
those on the fringes were either pagans or
Arian heretics. Monks served as mission¬
aries to these peoples. St. Patrick (c. 389—c.
461), for example, was a missionary in
Ireland. According to his early biogra¬
pher, he came from a Christianized family
in Britain, but at the age of 16 Irish raiders
captured him. He spent six miserable
years as a slave in Ireland before he escaped
and returned to Britain. He received fur¬
ther education in Christianity among the
Roman population of southern Gaul.
Summoned in a dream to go back to
Ireland and Christianize the people there,
he accepted the mission and began preach¬
ing and baptizing new converts. Although
many of his followers were killed and he
was nearly martyred, Ireland became Chris¬
tian. The Irish then sent their own
missionaries to the north ofEngland, where
a remarkable monastic culture was estab¬
lished at such places as Iona. The
monasteries housed both men and women
and were often supervised by an abbess
rather than an abbot.

The monasteries in Ireland and the north
ofEngland (in the Anglo-Saxon kingdom
of Northumbria) produced remarkable art¬
ists, scholars, saints, and missionaries. The

designs in their books and of their statuary
and altar ornaments combined motifs de¬
rived from indigenous animals with
Christian symbolism. Their saints were re¬
markable for their perseverance and their
relationship with animals. For example, the
Irish saint Brendan set out in a small boat in
the Atlantic with few provisions, but birds
ensured that he was fed. St. Cuthbert once
stood up to his neck in the cold waters of
the North Sea to meditate. When he got
out, otters came to dry his feet.

While the Irish and Anglo-Saxons in
the far north were practicing their own
type of monasticism, a young Roman
noble, Benedict (c. 480—c. 550), decided
that he did not want to follow the usual
career path for his class. Instead of entering
politics, he became a hermit. His reputation
for piety grew, and he soon had more
followers than he could easily settle near
him. Furthermore, his disciples were over¬
whelmed by worldly temptations, and
fought with one another. To provide them
with a more peaceful refuge, Benedict
moved his followers from outside Rome to
Monte Cassino in southern Italy. His sister,
Scholastica, set up a hermitage nearby, and
became the patron saint of Benedictine
nuns. Eventually, Benedict wrote a set of
rules for his followers—the Benedictine
Rule—that monastic orders in the west still
follow. Indeed, the Benedictines are among
the most numerous of the monastic orders
in the world today.

The Benedictine Rule was based on
three simple precepts: a vow of poverty, a
vow of chastity, and an acceptance of com¬
plete obedience to the abbot. When a
person entered a monastery or nunnery, he

30 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

or she gave all personal possessions to the
community and adopted the simple robes
and sandals of the order. An initiate, or new
member, commonly went through a pe¬
riod of trial, called a novitiate, before taking
the final vows. The novitiate helped people
make sure that the rigors of monastic life
were what they really wanted. Once ini¬
tiates had passed through the novitiate and
taken their final vows, they wore the sym¬
bols of their order. Men shaved their heads,
leaving only a ring of hair on the top called
a tonsure. Women donned a distinctive veil.

Within the religious community, re¬
sponsibilities were assigned according to
the skills of its members. Some adminis¬
tered the monastery, while others copied
and illuminated (decorated) manuscripts,
educated children, worked in the kitchens
and barns, or became priests. Everyone said
prayers seven times a day. Recognizing the
difficulty of waking up before sunrise to
pray, the Rule asked that brothers gently
encourage one another to do so. Their
simple diet consisted of cheese, fish, bread,
beans, and a good measure of wine every
day. The young, sick, and elderly were also
encouraged to eat some meat for strength.
The residents of the monastery lived in
dormitories supervised by the older monks.
Other monastic buildings included a large
kitchen, storage areas, bams, a chapterhouse
for meetings, a chapel, a scriptorium for
writing and keeping books, and a cloister
for meditation and growing medicinal herbs.
The monk’s life was simple, orderly, and
dedicated to prayer, learning, and service to
the poor.

The Benedictine Rule was very popu¬
lar, and soon many new monasteries were

The Humiliated Manuscripts

In this illumination from the Lindisfarne Gospels, snakes
curl to form the initial letters (L, I, and B) of
St. Matthew's gospel. The Celtic patterns within the
snake’s bodies transform into the heads of dragons and
other creatures. In illuminated Bibles the first page of a
Gospel was generally the most ornate, containing large
decorative images with few words.

The word “illuminate”
comes from the Latin
illuminare, which means
“to light up.” In the
Middle Ages, illuminated
manuscripts were texts
decorated with letters and
images formed from col¬
ored inks. Usually red ink
was used for the capital
letter of the first word on
a page or the first word in
a paragraph. Such red let¬
ters were called rubrics
(from the Latin rubricare,
“to make red”). Decora¬
tions of important
manuscripts were much
more complex. They fea¬
tured illustrations of
scenes from the text or
small pictures within the
first letter of a word.
Many of the most beauti¬
ful existing manuscripts
are Bibles and Books of
Hours (books of daily
prayers). The paintings
were usually small be¬
cause they appeared
within the text; for this
reason, they are often
called miniatures.

Illuminating manu¬
scripts was exacting work,
particularly in elaborate
books in which various
colors of inks were used.
Design motifs varied from
century to century. The
Book of Kells, a richly

decorated manuscript of
the four Gospels made in
the eighth century, con¬
tains some of the most
interesting early motifs,
combining Celtic and
Christian artistic tradi¬
tions. In its complex
borders, images of snakes

and dragons surround re¬
ligious scenes. The book
was made in northern
England or possibly Scot¬
land or Ireland, but its
name comes from the
monastery of Kells in Ire¬
land, where it was housed
from about 1006 to 1653.

founded. Among the early adherents was a
young man who would become Pope Gre¬
gory the Great. Gregory, like Benedict,
came from a noble Roman family but
preferred the monastic life. When he was
selected as pope, he tried to hide from those
who sought him out. Nevertheless, he was
able to preserve and increase the power of
the pope. He made peace with the Lombards
and carefully administered the Churches’
estates around Rome, which gave him the
resources to defend the papacy against the
Lombards. He also wrote a life of Benedict
and a number of works on relics and the

SETTLING DOWN IN THE OLD EMPIRE • 31

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Justinian was the last of the emperors
to try to unite the eastern and western
pans of the Roman Empire. In addi¬
tion to many military campaigns , he
sponsored the codification of Roman
law } the Corpus Juris Civilis, and
many building projects. The diadem
he wears indicates the shift from Ro¬
man to more eastern traditions.

demonic temptations that plagued even
saintly people. But his lasting achievement
was the use of Benedictine missionaries to
extend Christianity to the peoples who had
settled on the fringes of the old empire.

One story told about Gregory held that
he saw some beautiful, fair-skinned chil¬
dren for sale as slaves in the Roman market.
He asked where they had come from and
was told that they were Angles, people who
had settled in the old Roman province of
Britain. Gregory commented that they were
not Angles but Angels. He then set about
converting them to Christianity.

The conversion of England was in part
the result of Gregory’s missionary efforts,
but was also facilitated by a line of remark¬
able women. Clotilda, who had helped
Christianize Clovis and had earned the title
of saint, had a granddaughter named
Clodoswinde. She became queen of the
Lombards and tried to convert her husband,
Alboin. Clotilda’s great-granddaughter, Ber¬
tha, married King Aethelbert of Kent. After
their wedding, he agreed that she could
bring along a Christian priest, even though
Aethelbert intended to continue to practice

One of the oldest surviving copies of
The Venerable Bede’s History of
the English Church and People
was printed in southern England in
the early eighth century. Bede’s his¬
tory included the fanciful and
miraculous lives of Anglo-Saxon
saints, such as St. Cuthbert, but
when he mote about historical events,
he carefully named the sources he used
or the people he talked to in order to
write an accurate account.

the religion of his ancestors. Gregory sent
her a bishop who became known as St.
Augustine of Canterbury because he suc¬
ceeded in converting Aethelbert and his
followers. Bertha’s daughter, Ethelberga,
married the king of Northumbria and con¬
verted him as well.

The north of England posed a particular
problem for the Church. While the area
was already Christian, the religious prac¬
tices of the people there differed markedly
from Roman traditions. For instance, they
calculated the date of Easter differently, and
their monks tonsured their heads from ear
to ear instead of in a circle. The Synod
(council) of Whitby in 664, presided over
by the abbess of that great monastery that
included both men and women, was called
on to reconcile local practices with Roman
traditions. The Northumbrian king de¬
clared that he found all the theological
arguments for Roman practice confusing.
He finally asked if both sides accepted that
Peter founded the church of Rome. Be¬
cause they both agreed, he decided in favor
of Roman practice.

The combination of Benedictine mo-
nasticism and the strong traditions the
English had inherited from Irish Christian¬
ity created a vibrant culture that would
influence learning and missionary activities
for several centuries. The most famous
author of the period was the Venerable
Bede (672—735), a Benedictine monk who
spent his life at the monasteries of
Wearmouth andjarrow. The most learned
man of his day, he digested all of the
manuscripts available in their remarkable
libraries. His writings present a summary of
the learning of his time. Among Ins books

32 • THE MIDDLE AGES t AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

wmm

0 t

BJM

is the History of the English Church and People,
which recounts the Synod of Whitby, vari¬
ous political events, and the lives of kings,
queens, abbots, abbesses, and saints.

By the middle of the seventh century,
separate kingdoms had begun to emerge in
the western part of the former Roman
Empire. The Anglo-Saxons, divided into
several kingdoms, occupied England; the
Franks had settled much of France; the
Visigoths controlled Spain; the Lombards
had taken over Italy; and the papacy, with
its estates, was established in Rome and the
surrounding countryside. Only the vast
region of modem Germany had yet to be
Christianized.

In the eastern half of the Roman Em¬
pire, however, the fifth and sixth centuries
brought both great victories and major
defeats. The eastern empire was able to
preserve its territory partly through a policy
of encouraging the Germanic tribes to move
into the west and partly through diplomacy
and bribes to the new tribes that appeared

on its borders. Through these efforts, the
wealthy crescent of territory around the
eastern Mediterranean retained its rich,
urban-centered culture.

Justinian (reigned 527—565) was the last
of the Roman emperors to attempt to
control the whole ofthe empire once again.
Justinian was a colorful figure who sur¬
rounded himself with equally dramatic
people. Because he had a keen sense of
history, he hired a historian, Procopius, to
write an official account of his reign. Al¬
though Procopius enjoyed this patronage
and dutifully wrote two books about
Justinian’s wars and buildings, he also wrote
a secret history containing all of the court
gossip. Procopius particularly wanted to
discredit the Empress Theodora, Justinian’s
wife, whom he maintained had an earlier
career as a pornographic entertainer and
courtesan in Constantinople. Rather than
seeing the rise of this intelligent, beautiful
woman to the position of empress as a
heartwarming rags-to-riches story, he con-

The plan for the Benedictine monas¬
tery at Canterbury shows Canterbury
Cathedral at the top. The two squares
are the cloisters with their open, arched
corridors shown as a scalloped border.
The center cloister has an herb garden.
At the bottom is the necessanum or
latrines for the monks. To the left is a
chapel and infirmary; the dormitory
abuts the cloister.

SETTLING DOWN IN THE OLD EMPIRE • 33

Procopius's Secret History Reveals Count Scandal

historian during the
reign of emperor
Justinian, Procopius
lived between 500 and
554. While writing his
official histories for Justin¬
ian, he composed another
book, in which he reviled
the emperor and his wife,
Theodora. Of Theodora,
he wrote: “To her body
she gave greater care than
was necessary, if less than
she thought desirable. For
early she entered the bath
and late she left it; having
bathed, went to breakfast.
After breakfast she rested.
At dinner and supper she

partook of every kind of
food and drink; and many
hours she devoted to
sleep, by day till nightfall,
by night till the rising of
the sun. Though she
wasted her hours thus in-
temperately, what time of
day remained she deemed
ample for managing the
Roman Empire.”

Procopius was equally
scathing in his descrip¬
tions of Justinian: “Now
in physique he was nei¬
ther tall nor short, but of
average height; not thin,
but moderately plump;
his face was round and

not bad looking, for he
had good color, even
when he fasted for two
days.... Now such was Jus¬
tinian in appearance; but
his character was some¬
thing I could not fully
describe. For he was at
once villainous and ame¬
nable; as people say
colloquially, a moron. He
was never truthful with
anyone, but always guile¬
ful in what he said and
did, yet easily hoodwinked
by any who wanted to de¬
ceive him. His nature was
an unnatural mixture of
folly and wickedness.”

This mosaic of Theodora, wife of Justinian, appears opposite his in Ravenna. The
magnificence of court clothing and jewels indicate the wealth of the Byzantine Empire.

sidered Theodora a sorceress. In fact, she
was very much her husband's partner in
running the empire and showed consider¬
able courage early in their reign when
rioters burned much of Constantinople and
threatened to depose them. Theodora re¬
fused to leave the city, declaring that she
would rather die wearing the imperial purple
(a color reserved for the clothing of the
emperor and his family) than live in exile.
Theodora and Justinian were able to quell
the riots, and continued to rule.

Justinian decided to rebuild
Constantinople on a grand scale. The most
memorable monument was the Hagia
Sophia, a great domed church that still
stands today. It was once lined with mosaics
of semi-precious stones and gold that shim¬
mered in candlelight or filtered sunlight.
The dome had a series of windows around
its base so that in bright sunlight it appeared
to be floating. One of the favorite ways to
impress visiting barbarians was to take them
to a religious service in the church. On one
occasion a child was suspended from the
dome to play the part of an angel and fill the
dome with heavenly singing. Justinian and
Theodora also built churches in Ravenna
(St. Vitale) and Venice (St. Mark’s).

Another ofjustinian’s cultural achieve¬
ments was the codification of Roman law
in the CorpusJuris Civilis. The Roman laws
were a jumble of old practices and decrees
of Roman emperors that had governed
commercial transactions, criminal offenses,
and the relationship of the emperor to the
people. Justinian’s jurists worked on elimi¬
nating duplications and inconsistencies to
produce a unified code of laws, the Codex
Justinianus. He also had them compile a
summary of the main legal principles in the
Institutes.

In the 12th century, the emperor’s
compilation of laws found its way back to
the west, where it had considerable influ¬
ence on western legal thinking. It also
played a large role in the establishment of
universities and legal practices. Much of
modem commercial law and legal thought
about the relationship of rulers to the
ruled originated in the Roman law pre-

34 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

served in the Codex. It suggested that
emperors were subject to the law just as
the people were and that the power of
emperors derived from the people. These
ideas reflected the older Roman tradition,
but Justinian himself was more of an eastern
despot, inclined to take law and governance
into his own hands.

The reign of Justinian marked a transi¬
tion for the Roman Empire. His
government was oriental in style, that is,
power was concentrated in the office ofthe
emperor and his subjects had little access to
him. Those Justinian did see had to pros¬
trate before him while he sat wearing a
multilayered diadem instead of the tradi¬
tional crown of laurel leaves. But Justinian
was also the last of the Latin-speaking
emperors. Greek language and culture had
become so predominant that even though
the people continued to refer to them¬
selves as Romans, to westerners they were
“the Greeks.”

Justinian and Theodora envisioned the
reconquest ofthe west, but their wars proved
more devastating than successful. The ex¬
pense of these campaigns, along with the
couple’s elaborate building projects, drained
the treasury. Further religious conflicts over
whether Christ was divine or human also
left many people disaffected. Some argued
that Christ was entirely divine (these adher¬
ents were called monophy-sites, meaning
one purely spiritual body), while others held
that he was entirely human. The compro¬
mise position maintained that he was both
perfectly divine and perfectly human.

Because of threats from the east, the
reconquest of the west proved impossible.

The Persians had managed to capture a
Byzantine emperor, forcing him to serve
the Persian emperor on bended knee. When
he died in this humiliating service, he was
stuffed and hung from the roof of the
palace. After defeating the Persians in 641,
the Byzantines finally were able to give the
unfortunate emperor a Christian burial.

The interior of Hagia Sophia } commis¬
sioned by Justinian and Theodora, was
originally covered with mosaics that
shimmered with gold in the sunlight.
The massive windowed dome seemed
to float in golden light. When the
Turks conquered Constantinople, they
painted over the Christian mosaics in
accordance with Islamic beliefs.

SETTLING DOWN IN THE OLD EMPIRE • 35

The long and draining wars left both em¬
pires vulnerable to yet another set of invaders,
the Arabs.

The Arabian peninsula lay outside the
domination of the Roman Empire, but
through trade and caravan routes its mer¬
chants had contact with the Byzantine and
Persian empires. The peoples of the area
were polytheists (worshipers of many gods)
and had no political unity. However, the
peninsular Arabs all recognized the city of
Mecca as a religious center. It was in Mecca
that Muhammad was bom about 571. He
worked as a caravan trader for a wealthy
woman who became his wife. In his travels,
he had contact with Jews and Christians in
the towns that bordered the Byzantine
Empire. In his late 30s he underwent a
mystical experience and had a series of
revelations, which he attributed to God.
Muhammad began preaching a new faith
based on strict monotheism (worship of
one God). Initially, only his wife and a few
relatives converted, but his radical views
worried the merchants of Mecca. They
believed he was discrediting the Kaaba—a
special shrine in Mecca that contained many
statues and symbols of their gods, including
a black stone that was said to have been
given to Adam on his expulsion from Para¬

dise. To escape the merchants 5 wrath,
Muhammad fled to Medina; his flight is
known among Muslims as the “Hegira. 55 In
Medina he preached and gathered a num¬
ber of followers. His followers wrote down
his sermons, and these notes formed the
basis of the Koran. By 630 Muhammad’s
following was large enough to defeat Mecca,
and he made a triumphant return to the
city. He removed idols from the Kaaba, but
kept the black stone. In the final two years
of his life, he unified the Arabs under the
new religion, Islam, and created a state in
which he acted as both the religious and
political leader.

Muhammad regarded himself as the last
of the prophets and included Moses and
Jesus among his predecessors. Islam toler¬
ated Jews and Christians as “peoples of
book, 55 meaning the Old and New Testa¬
ments. A strict monotheist, Muhammad
preached that his followers must submit to
the will of Allah, the single, almighty God
of the universe. The Koran provided in¬
structions for living properly as well as
religious guidance. The basic tenant of the
faith was, “There is no god but Allah, and
Muhammad is his prophet.” Those who
followed Islam were assured of salvation.
Practice of the religion included praying

Muhammad (right) leads a group of his
predecessors including Abraham, Moses,
and Jesus in prayer. The Islamic reli¬
gion considers Muhammad to be the
last of God’s prophets. This Persian
manuscript shows that there were excep¬
tions to the rule of not representing
humans in pictures.

five times a day, refusing to eat pork or
drink wine, offering charity to the poor,
making a pilgrimage to Mecca once in
one’s lifetime, and perhaps fighting for the
faith in a battle known as a jihad.

The unified Arabs spread quickly after
Muhammad’s death. During the first wave
of conquest, from 632 to 655, they con¬
quered Syria, Egypt, and the Persian
Empire. They continued their expansion
into North Africa, where they destroyed
the remnants of Vandal and Byzantine
rule .The Arabs then moved into Spain and
defeated the Visigothic kingdom. Finally,
in 732, their drive into Europe was stopped
by the Franks.

The Arabs proved remarkably able to
adapt to new circumstances and to the
cultures that they conquered. After their
arrival at the Mediterranean Sea, they be¬
came excellent sailors. They captured
Byzantine islands in the Mediterranean and
threatened Constantinople from the
Bosporus. The emperor’s armies fought
back with Greek fire, a chemical com¬
pound similar to napalm that burned on
water and set the Arab boats on fire. Only
through great effort were the emperor’s
soldiers able to keep Constantinople, the
Balkans, and a portion of Asia Minor in
Byzantine hands.

The Arabs also borrowed from the art,
architecture, and intellectual achievements
of the people they conquered. On capturing
Baghdad, the capital of the Persian Empire,
they became acquainted with the astro¬
nomical learning of the Persians, which
included accurate observations of the stars,

36 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Islamic artists perfected elaborate geo¬
metric designs for daily objects such as
this bowl, the walls of mosques, rugs,
and clothing. The Koran forbade rep¬
resentations of God’s creation,
including humans and animals.

the phases of the moon, and eclipses. They
also found the writings of the Greek philoso¬
phers and medical experts. These manuscripts
had come to Persia by a curious path. When
Christianity became the dominant religion
in the Roman Empire, the intellectuals who
remained true to the pantheon of the gods in
Athens and elsewhere left the Christian area
with their books and settled in Persia. There
their works were translated into Persian.
Arab scholars then translated them into Ara¬
bic and added their own commentaries.
These texts made their way through Spain
to western Europe centuries later.

The Arabs also drew on the decorative
traditions of other peoples to create their
remarkable and beautiful mosques (Islamic
houses of worship). Islam prohibited repre¬
sentations of God or his creation, humans,
so Muslim artisans developed their own
intricate geometrical designs for pottery,
mosaics, and fabrics.

Although Muhammad created his new
religion for Arabs, Islam and its culture
proved very attractive to their subject popu¬
lations. Large numbers of Christians, Jews,
and Persians converted, and mosques re¬
placed some Christian churches.

By 700 the Mediterranean and northern
Europe were very much changed. Rather
than consisting of provinces in one large
empire, northern Europe was splintered
into a number of smaller, semi-tribal units
ruled by kings. Although nominally Chris¬
tian, the people who made up these units
retained many pagan practices. For in¬
stance, the names used for the days Tuesday,
Wednesday, and Thursday were derived

from the names of the Germanic gods Tiu,
Woden, and Thor. Sacred groves that hon¬
ored these gods were referred to by
Christianized names such as ‘‘Holy Wood”
or “Hollywood.”

Although its land mass was much re¬
duced, the Byzantine Empire remained
powerful in the eastern Mediterranean.
Constantinople was a huge city with a
population of a million people. Other large
cities in the empire produced rich silks,
glass objects, tapestries, carved ivories, and
fine jewelry that were much in demand in
the west. The Roman traditions were lost,
and the emperors became more like east¬
ern autocrats, with the ceremonies
surrounding their persons becoming in¬
creasingly elaborate. Although they now
ruled much of the former territory of
Byzantium, the Arabs were unable to bring
such a large territory under one ruler.
Instead, parts were overseen by powerful
leaders called “caliphs,” who acted as both
the supreme religious and political leaders
of their lands.

By the beginning of the eighth century,
the period of expansion of different
peoples—from the Anglo-Saxons in north¬
western Europe to the Arabs in western
Asia—-was coming to an end, leaving popu¬
lations coping with new cultural
experiences and new neighbors. This chap¬
ter has told the story of how the wealthy
and powerful experienced these vast
changes. The next will examine their in¬
fluence on the population as a whole, both
members of the invading tribes and those
they conquered.

The Koran is the religious book of Islam.
“Koran ” comes from the Arabic word
for “recitation. ” Muhammad recited his
revelations with his followers every day
first in Mecca and later in Medina. In
Medina, he assembled a group of scribes
to take down his ivords. After
Muhammad’s death , several different
collections of his revelations circulated
among his followers. Under the third ca¬
liph, Uthman, an official version of the
Koran was assembled. It is written in a
learned Arabic, which remains the stan¬
dard for all scholarly Arabic writing.

SETTLING DOWN IN THE OLD EMPIRE • 37

Chapter 3

Three Empires:
Carolingian, Byzantine

Charles the Bald receives his croum
from the hand of God, which reaches
down from the heavens. He is flanked
by, but superior to, the two bishops
standing on either side of him. To in¬
dicate that their power came from God
and that they were heirs to the Ro¬
man emperors, the Carolingians took
care to represent themselves below
God and in Roman dress.

I n 510, on the night that Clovis, king of
the Franks, converted to Christianity,
legend says that his wife Clotilda dreamed
first of a lion, then a wolf, and finally a
jackal. When she awoke, she told Clovis
about her dream and prophesied that his
royal line would follow the same sequence.
The first rulers, including Clovis, would be
Hons among kings, but after a few genera¬
tions they would become wolves, and in
time his line would turn into jackals, or mere
dogs. The prophesy was probably made
much later and with hindsight, because the
Merovingian dynasty Clovis established did
follow that pattern. The last of the
Merovingians were so inactive that their
subjects saw them only when they appeared,
riding in ox carts, on their estates.

As the Merovingians increasingly became
figureheads, the real power passed to another
family, who became known as Carolingians
after their famous leader, Charlemagne (742-
814), also known as Charles the Great or
Carolus Magnus. The Carolingians de¬
scended from a line of bishops from the
northeastern frontier of the Frankish king¬
dom. They rose to prominence through
their military and administrative abilities

and Arab

and eventually conquered and ruled much
of the Frankish territory in the east. Their
early leaders held the position of mayor of
the palace under the Merovingians, the
equivalent of a prime minister. However,
they never forgot their religious origins and
were great supporters of monasteries and
missionaries.

The era of colorful medieval nicknames
began with the Carolingians. Charles Martel
(meaning Charles the Hammer, bom 688)
embarked on a policy of fighting those who
would not recognize Merovingian rule. By
the beginning of the eighth century, he had
brought most of the territory that Clovis had
ruled into the Frankish kingdom . But Charles
Martel was still not king, only mayor of the
palace.

While Charles was unifying the Frankish
territory, a new threat crossed the Pyrenees
in the south—the Arabs. The Arabs swept
into southwestern France just as they had
earlier entered the Byzantine Empire, North
Africa, and Spain. Charles marched to the
region between Poitiers and Tours with an
army partly composed of a heavily armed
cavalry—the forerunner of the medieval
knights—and defeated the Arabs in 732. He

THREE EMPIRES: CAROLINGIAN, RYZANTINE, AND ARAB • 39

Pepin the Short issued a silver coin for
his realm with his name PIPI on one
side. The new coinage marked his
deposition of the ruling Merovingians
and the assumption of the Frankish
throne for himself and his heirs.

was then declared the “Hammer of
Christendom.” The pope perceived him as
the savior of all Christians from the threat
of Islam and invited him to come to Rome
to deliver Italy from the threat of the
resurgent Lombards. Charles refused to
take on this fight.

Pepin the Short (reigned 751-768), his
son, was not content to govern for the
Merovingians. He wanted to be king in his
own right. His accession to mayor of the
palace coincided with the Lombards’ suc¬
cess in taking Ravenna, the last Byzantine
stronghold in Italy. Pope Stephen, worried
about the survival of Rome, called on the
powerful Christian leader of the north to
save the city rather than turning to the
Byzantine emperor. Pepin sent an embassy
to the pope asking if it would be proper for
him to assume the kingship. The pope
quickly replied that “the man who had the
actual power was more deserving of the
crown than the one who was only a figure¬
head,” by whom he meant the current
weak Merovingian king. Pepin then called
an assembly of Frankish nobles, warriors,
and clergy and had himself elected their
king. The last of the Merovingian kings was
sent to a monastery where his hair, worn
long as befitting a king, was cut in the
fashion of a monk.

To legitimize Pepin’s coup, the pope
crowned him in a coronation ceremony
modeled on the anointing of David as
described in the Bible. This ceremony be¬
came the standard for all coronations in
western Europe. Pepin made good on his
side of the bargain: He twice invaded Italy
and defeated the Lombards. After securing
the land around Rome from Lombard

attack, he gave it to the pope in what
became known as the “Donation ofPepin. ”
This territory, which extended across the
Italian peninsula from Rome to Ravenna,
was referred to as the Papal States by the late
Middle Ages.

Following the Frankish custom of divid¬
ing an inheritance equally among all a
deceased’s heirs, Pepin was succeeded by
two sons. The early death of one left an able
king, Charlemagne, in power. Much is
known about Charlemagne because he had
two contemporary biographers. Several stat¬
ues of him have also survived.

Einhard, the more colorful biographer,
wrote that Charlemagne had been his friend
since childhood and that later he had lived
close to the king at his court. He described
Charlemagne as “large and strong, and of
lofty stature, although not disproportion¬
ately tall (his height is well known to have
been seven times the length of his foot); the
upper part of his head was round, his eyes
very large and animated, nose a little long,
hair fair, and face laughing and merry. Thus
his appearance was always stately and digni¬
fied, whether he was standing or sitting;
although his neck was thick and somewhat
short, and his belly rather prominent; but
the symmetry of the rest of his body con¬
cealed these defects.” (In the late 19th
century Charlemagne’s skeleton was mea¬
sured; he was 6 feet 3 inches.) Einhard also
explained that the king had a firm walk and
a clear voice, although softer than one
would have expected in such a large man.
For recreation Charlemagne enjoyed horse¬
back riding, hunting, and swimming. He
swam in the hot springs at Aachen
(Aix-la-Chapelle), often joined by his sons

40 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

and nobles. He sometimes invited a troop
of his bodyguards to swim with him as well.

According to Einhard, Charlemagne
drank and ate moderately, preferring roast
meats to the boiled ones that his physicians
recommended when his health was failing
in old age. In dress, he favored Frankish
clothing over Roman garb. (Only on two
visits to Rome did he dress like a Roman.)
Next to his skin he wore a “linen shirt and
linen breeches, and above these a tunic
fringed with oriental silk, while hose fas¬
tened by bands covered his lower limbs,
and shoes his feet.” He always carried a
sword with a gold or silver hilt. Over
everything he wore a blue cloak.

Both Christianity and learning were dear
to Charlemagne. While he ate, he liked to
have Augustine of Hippo’s books read to
him, particularly The City of God. But he
also enjoyed recitations of the old Frankish
stories similar to Beowulf. He could, Einhard
tells us, speak Latin as well as Frankish, but
he could not write: “He used to keep tablets
and blanks in bed under his pillow, that at
leisure hours he might accustom his hand to
form the letters; however, as he did not
begin his efforts in due season, but late in
life, they met with ill success.”

Charlemagne saw that both his sons and
daughters were educated. He also encour¬
aged the education of the clergy by starting
schools in the cathedrals. To keep himself
informed of intellectual matters, he sur¬
rounded himself with scholars from the
monasteries of northern England and other
parts of Europe. Notable among them was
Alcuin, a scholar from England who brought
to the continent the learning preserved by
English and Irish monks. He and other

This silver reliquary holds the bones of
Charlemagne, who was regarded as the
ideal Christian emperor. The crown
and the scepter in his hand indicate his
role as ruler, the small replica of a
church in the other hand represents his
role as protector of the Church, and the
halo behind his head shows him to be
a religious figure.

scholars studied astronomy, grammar, and
rhetoric. Perhaps their most lasting contri¬
bution was the development of Carolingian
minuscule, a form of handwriting with
capitals and small letters that influenced
modern writing and typography.

It is remarkable that Charlemagne ever
had time to sit and listen to books being read
or to pause for a swim. He spent most of his
reign in military campaigns or supervising
his vast kingdom. He pushed the bound¬
aries of the Frankish lands north into the
modern Netherlands, east ofthe Rhine into
Saxony, and into other areas that even the
Romans had not conquered. Using monks
as missionaries, Charlemagne encouraged
the peoples of these newly conquered terri¬
tories to convert to Christianity. The monks
used extreme measures, such as cutting
down the oak trees that the local people
worshipped and using the timber to build

Charlemagne’s exploits as a warrior
are commemorated on a panel of the
reliquary above. The emperor sits in
his tent dressing for battle. His fully
armed knights , dad in chain mail, are
either sleeping or already on horse¬
back. Charlemagne spent almost
every year of his life in warfare.

THREE EMPIRES: CAROLINGIAN, BYZANTINE, AND ARAB • 41

Carolingian Minuscule

T he Romans used a
script composed of
all capital letters
(majuscule). In formal
documents these capitals
looked much like our
capital alphabet. The Ro¬
mans also developed a
cursive (informal) script
that was written so
quickly that the words ran
together, making reading
very difficult.

Merovingian scribes
were even more careless.

In some parts of Europe,
notably Ireland and
Northumbria, a combi¬
nation of the majuscule
and the cursive were
used. The beginnings of
sentences were in capi¬
tals, but the rest was in a
cursive. Because many of
Charlemagne’s scholars
(including Alcuin) came
from northern En¬
gland, the writing that
Charlemagne mandated
for preserving laws,

liturgical documents,
Bibles, and government
records resembled these
scripts.

Capital letters were
clearly distinguished from
small letters. Space was
left between words, and
the letters themselves
were well rounded and
distinct. Carolingian mi¬
nuscule outlasted the
Carolingian kings and in¬
fluences our printing
today.

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A page from the book of Exodus from a Bible written in Tours about 834—43 shows
the capital letter and the small letter combination typical of Carolingian minuscule .

churches where the oaks had stood. When
peaceful conversion did not work,
Charlemagne backed up such efforts with
threats. He told the Saxons that if they did
not convert, he would put them all to
death. They converted.

The most famous of Charlemagne’s
battles was recorded in a distorted form in
The Song of Roland, a poem that was written
down several centuries after the event.
Charlemagne thought that he could take
advantage of internal dissension among the
Arab rulers to take over Spain. He was
unsuccessful, and on his return from Spain
in 778, his troops were attacked by Chris¬
tian Basques at a pass in the Pyrenees
Mountains called Roncevaux. In the epic
poem. Count Roland, the leader of the
rearguard, is attacked by Arabs (rather than
Basques) at the pass because of the treachery
of Ganelon, another of Charlemagne’s
nobles, who was jealous of Roland. The
poem first appeared in written form in the
12th century as the story of a warrior’s
loyalties to his fellow warriors and of a man
to his lord.

Charlemagne’s relations with the pope
in Rome were as intense as those of his
father. He finished the task of subduing the
Lombards and took their territory in north¬
ern Italy. But squabbles in Rome brought
him back there as a peacemaker during the
Christmas season of800. The pope, Leo III,
had been deposed, and his enemies had cut
out his tongue. When he appealed, in
writing, for help, Charlemagne came to
Italy with an army. He reinstated Leo as
pope on December 23, and on December
25 Leo crowned him emperor.

Einhard claims that Charlemagne did

42 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

In a 14th-century manuscript illus¬
tration of The Song of Roland,
the aged emperor Charlemagne bids
his nephew Roland goodbye as
Roland stays behind to protect
Charles’s army .

not want this title and that if he had known
what Leo was planning, he would not
have gone to church that day even though
it was Christmas. Despite Einhard’s pro¬
testations, Charles most likely orchestrated
the coronation himself. Leo could hardly
have been hiding a crown behind his back,
only to plop it on Charles’s head as he
lingered at the altar to pray. Neither the
pope nor Charlemagne, of course, had any
legal right to claim the imperial tide in the
west. Indeed, Charlemagne had earlier
tried to secure the title in a more legal
fashion by proposing marriage to Irene,
the empress of Byzantium. She turned
him down.

The Carolingian Empire, as Charle¬
magne’s realm came to be known, had little
in common with the Byzantine Empire.
The government relied on the presence of
the emperor to keep everything running
smoothly. If Charlemagne was not fighting,
he was visiting various places in his empire
to ensure his subjects’ loyalty. Fortunately,
he enjoyed horseback riding, because he
spent much of his time in the saddle. His
household administration, including a cham¬
berlain who was in charge of the royal
treasure, traveled with him. For the most
part, the emperor’s income came not from
taxes as was the case in Byzantium, but from
estates that Charlemagne owned. Indeed,
he was the biggest landowner in the coun¬
try. Likewise his cellarer, who oversaw the
vineyards and wines, drew his stores from
the emperor’s private estates. A constable
was in charge of the stables and the army. A
private chaplain and his assistants carried on
both private and official correspondence,
because only the clergy knew Latin well

enough to do so. And because it was impos¬
sible to cart or ship all the goods grown on
his estates to a central capital such as Aachen,
his favorite residence, Charlemagne liter¬
ally had to travel from place to place with his
anny, friends, family, and household offi¬
cials to eat and drink the wealth of his
harvests.

Realizing that governing such a vast
territory was too much for one person,
Charlemagne tned to delegate some of his
power. The border provinces were a par¬
ticular problem, because the native
populations were only recently conquered,
thus still rebellious. These areas he put in
charge of marquises or dukes—titles de¬
rived from Roman military leaders. They
were to look after the defenses of their
assigned tenitory. In the more established

areas, Charlemagne relied on counts, who
had mostly civil, or administrative duties.
The counts, marquises, and dukes were
drawn from the upper class of Franks and
came to regard their positions as hereditary.
Charlemagne could count on them to look
after their own interests in the countryside
and perhaps try to preserve some of his
interests if he visited them with an army
often enough.

He could also ask them to raise an anny
from their territory if it was threatened with
attack. Only those with adequate land to
support themselves and their attendants for
a three-month campaign could serve. But
asking a man to turn up with a horse,
weapons, and armor was demanding more
than most could afford. Charles Martel had
rewarded those who withstood the Arabs

THREE EMPIRES: CAROLINGIAN, BYZANTINE, AND ARAB • 43

with grants of land for their life use. Pepin
and Charlemagne did the same when they
required warriors for their many wars.
Warriors, therefore, came to assume that
they would receive a reward of land and its
income in return for military service. In
order to keep his counts loyal, Charles had
to grant them even larger tracts of land and
the rights to administer them. This policy
was bound to weaken the emperor s con¬
trol of his territory unless he frequently
appeared in person to remind his noble
counts, marquises, and dukes that he had
ultimate authority over the land and its
income.

After the Franks had arrived in the former
Roman territories and the Carolingians had

conquered the tribes on their borders, the
way of life for most men and women
proceeded as it had for centuries. The men
did the hunting, fighting, gambling, metal
work, and governing while the women did
the farming, herding, brewing, clothing,
and childrearing, and kept the religious
practices. But a revolutionary change in
these roles occurred when the tribes settled
down in one place, became Christian, and
had to cultivate the land for a living. From
the earliest traditions of Mediterranean
civilization, men’s lives had been closely
tied to the plow, so much so that the plow
became a metaphor for men. Similarly,
women were so closely associated with
spinning wool and weaving cloth that the

spindle was often used to represent women.
The men and women who came under
the influence of Mediterranean culture
gradually adopted these tasks and their
respective symbols. Because metal was a
scarce commodity in those times, men
must literally have beaten their swords
into plowshares. Women retreated from
the fields to concentrate their labor about
the house. These people must have had
strong feelings about this radical change in
patterns of behavior, but their emotions
and thoughts are not recorded.

The records from the reign of
Charlemagne provide a picture of the lives
of those who became peasants rather than
paid warriors in the new regime of settled
agriculture. The agricultural workers who
cultivated the old Roman estates blended
with the tribespeople who arrived and settled
with their families. The estate books of the
Carolingian period, in which details of the
land, people, and produce from the estates
were recorded, point to the diverse back¬
grounds and conditions of those who
worked the lands. Their names are of Ro¬
man, Germanic, and Old Testament origin,
suggesting a considerable amount of inter¬
marriage. For example, Electeus and his
wife Landina had Roman names. Abrahil
had a wife named Berthildis, and they had
three children Abram, Avremarus, and
Bertrada. This family, therefore, used both
Biblical and Frankish names. The family of
Ceslinus—which included his wife
Leutberga and their two children, Leutgardis
and Ingohildis—combined Roman and
Frankish names.

The estate records also noted the degree
of freedom enjoyed by each person listed.

44 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Electeus and Abrahil were slaves, but their
wives were colona, or free peasants. Berthildis,
Ceslinus, and Leutberga were described as
lidi, or halEfree peasants, because they owed
labor on the estate. They may have been
Germanic settlers. Those with free status
were free only in terms of their bodies,
labor, marriages, and families. They were
not free to leave the land or estate on which
they lived.

The invasions of the fifth century de¬
stroyed much of the long-distance trade in
Europe and around the Mediterranean.
Although luxury items were still traded and
an active trade continued in local markets,
most of the population of Europe lived by
farming the land, and most of the land was
organized into large estates. In Roman
times these estates were called latifundia, and
they provided people such as Sidonius, the
bishop and Roman patrician, and his friends
with a comfortable, pastoral life. The estates
changed hands in the Middle Ages. The
large estates then became known as manors,
and were owned by abbots, bishops, popes,
counts, dukes, marquises, kings, and em¬
perors. Part of the land, the best part, was
put aside for the exclusive use of the owner.
The rest was divided among the agricultural
laborers or peasants, who produced crops
and raised animals to feed themselves and
their children. They paid their lord for the
use of this land by performing services on
his portion of the property, by giving him
goods such as cheeses, or by paying rent in
money. Electeus, for instance, held half a
farm that included both arable land and
meadow. In return for the use of the land,
he carted manure and plowed a portion of
the lord’s fields for winter and spring plant¬

ing. Abrahil, Ceslinus, and another lidus ,
Godalbertus, held a farm together. During
the month of May, they had to cart goods
to local city markets for their lord. They also
had to transport two loads of wood to the
estate in the winter, mend the fences to
keep the lord’s cattle from wandering off,
and harvest his crops. They, too, plowed for
winter and spring planting and hauled ma¬
nure. In addition, they paid four pennies a
head as a tax.

The records from Carolingian estates are
complete enough to allow us to imagine a
day in the life of Abrahil and his family. It
is early spring, the day that the lord’s plow¬
ing must be done. Berthildis has risen early
to start a fire in an open hearth in the center
ofthe family’s hut. The smoke rises through
a hole in the roof. She heats water for the
family to use for washing. The morning
meal—a gruel of cooked grain—needs only
to be heated. Abrahil sends his son, Abram,
to the shed that serves as a bam to fetch the
ox and make sure that it has water and some

Peasant women provided services for
both their family and the owner of
the manor. Transporting water and
milk and caring for livestock were
daily activities .

THREE EMPIRES: CAROLINGIAN, BYZANTINE, AND ARAB • 45

Carolingian artists, imitating Byzan¬
tine styles, lavishly illustrated their
Bibles. Here, Luke writes his Gospel
with his symbol of the winged ox
behind him on one page, and the
Gospel begins on the facing page.

fodder before the long day’s work. Abram
will accompany his father into the fields to
goad the ox. Abrahil will do the plowing,
because his partners in the farm are busy
with other tasks. Ceslinus is carting grain
to Paris with the help of his son, and
Godalbertus has gone to fetch wood.
Abrahil and Abram meet up with the
other villagers, and the steward organizes
them into work teams for plowing.
Berthildis, meanwhile, has washed and
swaddled baby Bertrada and placed her in
a cradle by the fire. Avremarus, who is
eight years old, goes to get water from the
well for brewing beer. He then takes the
cow to pasture and watches it and the
cows of the others who share the farm.
Berthildis heats the water and begins the
process of brewing. She will have only a
light lunch. Her husband and sons will eat
the bread and cheese that they have taken

with them to their work. Those doing the
plowing will have beer supplied by the
estate’s steward. Returning tired in the
evening, the family consumes bread, a por¬
ridge of peas boiled with ham, and beer.
They are too weary to sit around the fire, so
Berthildis extinguishes it with a clay cover,
and they turn in early. Their beds are straw
pallets on the floor, their bedding rough
linen sheets and wool blankets woven by
Berthildis. A peasant’s day is hard work
from sunup to sundown.

Management of these estates required
continual oversight. Among Charlemagne’s
many administrative duties, he took time to
send directives to the stewards who ran his
estates. One such directive survives. In it,
Charlemagne’s first concern was that the
profits go directly to himself, not to anyone
else. His second concern was for his peas¬
ants: “That the people on our estates be well

taken care of, and that they be reduced to
poverty by no one.” He did not want the
stewards forcing the peasants to labor for
them rather than their lord, nor did he want
them extracting bribes from the peasants in
the form of wine, fruits, chickens, and eggs.
On the other hand, if the peasants stole or
did not fulfill the written rules, they were to
be whipped if they were slaves and fined if
they were coloni. Charlemagne’s directive
then discussed the care of livestock, vines
for wine, fields, fish ponds, mills, wood¬
lands, and the weaving houses where women
wove cloth. Stewards were to render ac¬
counts on Palm Sunday every year and have
all produce—such as cloth, wax, wine,
mustard, cheese, salted meats, butter, beer,
mead, honey, and flour—ready for the
emperor’s arrival.

Charlemagne’s arrival at one of his es¬
tates undoubtedly caused a great stir among
its inhabitants. Cooking for the emperor
and his retinue took days. The preparations
included butchering, tapping and tasting
barrels of wine, cleaning stables, scrubbing
out the stone house where he would stay,
and repairing the road on which he would
enter the estate. Even though Charlemagne
dressed like a Frank and rode a horse like
any other Frankish warrior, his clothes
were of much better quality than the peas¬
ants would ever have seen, and his horse
would be a spirited stallion. He might even
be accompanied by one of his daughters,
who would be traveling in an ox-drawn
cart and well bundled up in fine furs. Such
a visit would be a time of feasting even for
the peasants.

Feast days occurred at other times of the
year as well. When the missionaries and

46 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

clergy were occupied with converting the
pagans, they made a number of compro¬
mises about the dates of Christian feasts.
Even the date of Christmas, Christ’s birth,
was assigned to December 25 to coincide
with pagan winter solstice celebrations.
The Gospels did not give a date for Jesus’
birth. The revelries lasted 12 days as they
had during the Roman holidays that were
traditionally held at the same time. Other
feast days, such as Michaelmas, marked the
end of harvest in September. St. Martin’s
Day, celebrated on November 11, was the
traditional butchering day.

Ordinary people’s understanding of
Christianity was very slight and somewhat
tentative. Many people combined old and
new beliefs by worshipping both the old
gods and the new one. To discourage this
practice, the clergy sought to turn the old
gods, such as Venus, Mars, andjupiter, into
demons who tempted Christians’ souls.
Christians who still worshipped these rep¬
resentatives of the devil would go to Hell,
the clergy promised. Artists represented
Hell on church walls as a terrifying place
where demons tormented sinners with forks
and threw them into burning pits. Even
with such powerful weapons for dissuading
people a tone of exasperation often crept
into the clergy’s sermons: “For to light
candles before rocks and trees and streams
and at crossroads—is this anything else but
the worship of the devil? To observe divi¬
nations and auguries and days of the idols—is
this anything else but the worship of the
devil?” asked Bishop Martin of Braga. The
population, however, went on saying spells
over their land, giving herbs to their sick,
and consulting men and women thought to

Omens of Charlemagne's Death

I n the Middle Ages, as
in the ancient world,
natural phenomena and
calamities were seen as
omens of a major event.
Of course, most of these
signs were recollected af¬
ter the event they
supposedly foretold had
occurred. Following the
death of Charlemagne on
28 January 814, Einhard
wrote:

Very many omens had
portended his ap¬
proaching end, a fact
that he had recognized
as well as others.

Eclipses both of the
sun and moon were
very frequent during
the last three years of
his life, and a black
spot was visible on the
sun for the space of
seven days. The gallery
between the basilica
and the palace, which
he had built at great
pains and labor, fell in
sudden ruin to the
ground on the day of
the ascension of our
Lord. The wooden
bridge over the Rhine
at Mayence ... was so
completely consumed
in three hours by an

accidental fire that not
a single splinter of it
was left, except what
was under water.
Moreover, one day in
his last campaign into
Saxony against
Godfred, King of the
Danes, Charles himself
saw a ball of fire fall
suddenly from the
heavens with great
light, just as he was
leaving camp before
sunrise to set out on

the march. It rushed
across the clear sky
from right to left, and
everybody was won¬
dering what was the
meaning of the sign,
when the horse which
he was riding gave a
sudden plunge, head
foremost, and fell, and
threw him to the
ground so heavily that
his cloak buckle was
broken and his sword
belt shattered.

Charlemagne’s crown is preserved in Aachen, where
his reliquary is also kept. The crown resembles the
one he is wearing on the reliquary.

have the power to find lost animals or make
love potions.

Charlemagne spent the last years of his
life at his favorite residence of Aachen.
There he had built a beautiful chapel deco¬
rated with gold and silver in the Byzantine
style that still stands today. Einhard wrote
that as he neared death, Charlemagne called
his son, Louis, to him and before all the
chief men of the kingdom, placed the
imperial crown on Louis’s head, proclaim¬
ing him emperor. Charlemagne then spent
the fall hunting, but in January became very
ill. After a reign of 47 years, he died at the
age of 72.

While Louis took the title of emperor,
he was not able to fill the shoes of his

THREE EMPIRES: CAROLINGIAN, BYZANTINE, AND ARAB • 47

Strasbourg Oaths: First Written Example ol French and German

A s Latin ceased to be
the language of every¬
day speech, vernacu¬
lar languages took its
place. French is a Ro¬
mance language, meaning
that it derives from the
Roman language of Latin.
German belongs to the
Germanic language
group, which also in¬
cludes the Scandinavian
languages. English is a
combination of French
and German elements. All
these languages belong to
a greater, Indo-European
language group.

The earliest texts writ¬
ten in French and
German are the Strasbourg
Oaths. By reciting these
oaths, Charles the Bald
and Louis the German
publicly pledged their

loyalty to one another.

English translation:
“For the love of God and
the common salvation of
the Christian people and
ourselves, from this day
forth, as far as God gives
me wisdom and power, I
will treat this my brother
as one should rightfully
treat a brother, on condi¬
tion that he does the same
by me. And with Lothair
I will not willingly enter
into any agreement which
might injure this, my
brother.”

French: “Pro Deo
amur et pro Christian
poblo et nostro commun
salvament, dist di in
avant, in quant Deus savir
et podir me dunat, si
salvarai eo cist meon
fradre Karlo et in adiudha

et in adiudha, et in
cadhuna cosa si cum om
per dreit son fradra salvar
dist, in o quid il mi altresi
fazet; et ab Ludher nul
plaid numquam prindrai,
qui meon vol cist meon
fradre Karlo in damno sit.”

Gemian: “In Goddes
minna ind in thes
Christianes folches ind
unser bedhero gealtnissi,
fon thesemo dage
frammordes, so fram so
mir Got gewizci indi
madh furgibit, so haldih
thesan minan bruodher,
soso man mit rehtu sinan
bruodher shal, in thiu,
thaz er mig sosama duo;
indi mit Ludheren in
noheinin thing ne
geganga, the minan
willon eino ce scadhen
werben.”

Charles the Bald, shown here in an illustration
from his own Bible, became the king of the original
Frankish part of the empire.

energetic father. He was well educated and
very devout—deserving of his nickname
“the Pious”—but he was neither a good
statesman nor a skilled military leader. Rev¬
erencing the language of the Old Testament
and of Jesus, he learned Hebrew, and en¬
couraged Jews from the Mediterranean to
settle in the empire, particularly in the newly
conquered German areas. Perhaps the
Carolingian Empire was too large and made
up of too many different groups for one
person to govern. Louis soon divided his
land among his sons, giving them some of the
responsibility for ruling, but this move sim¬
ply created further divisions. His sons had no
sooner claimed their titles and property than
they began to fight among themselves.

When Louis the Pious died in 840, civil
war broke out among his sons. Lothair, the

eldest, had been made emperor of the
whole territory, with his power base ofland
in Italy. Charles the Bald was made king of
the west Franks (in the original part of the
empire), and Louis the German was made
king of the east Franks (in the newly con¬
quered territories east of the Rhine in
modern-day Germany).

Charles and Louis quickly made an alli¬
ance against Lothair to curtail his power. To
cement this alliance, they swore the
Strasbourg Oaths. Louis swore loyalty to
Charles in French and Charles made the
same oath to Louis in German. They used
these vernacular languages so that the re¬
tainers and troops of each would understand
what their king had said. The oaths are of
great interest today because they are the first
written examples of French and German

48 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

and indicate that Latin was no longer un¬
derstood by ordinary people.

Charles and Louis defeated Lothair and
imposed on him the Treaty of Verdun in
843. The treaty confined Lothair’s power
to a central section of land running north
from Italy into the Netherlands. This
“middle kingdom” included no natural or
linguistic boundaries. On the west side of
Lothair’s kingdom was that of Charles the
Bald, which included much of modern
France. On the east side was the kingdom
of Louis the German, which included the
German provinces of Saxony, Franconia,
Swabia, and Bavaria. Some historians have
suggested that the rationale behind the
territorial divisions was to distribute the
estates that still belonged to the monarchy
among the three brothers. Whatever the
reason, the middle kingdom continued to
present a problem into the 20th century,
because both France and Germany would
claim parts of it as their own. Some histo¬
rians even claim that World War I and
World War II were the direct result of the
Treaty of Verdun.

While Charlemagne was expanding his
empire and his grandsons were fighting
over its division, the Byzantine emperor
was trying to preserve as much of his
empire as possible. Political intrigues in
Byzantium initially hindered an effective
fight against northern encroachers, includ¬
ing Slavs, Bulgarians, and Russians. Irene
(reigned 797-802), the empress whom
Charlemagne proposed to marry, had risen
to the throne by having her own son
blinded and deposed. Further intrigue
brought the Macedonian dynasty to power.
Michael III (reigned 842-67)—“the
Drunkard”—was a great devotee of

chariot-racing and raised to power his
favorite horse trainer, a Macedonian named
Basil. Basil repaid the favor by having
Michael murdered and taking the crown
for himself.

One way the Byzantines tried to dis¬
suade the tribes on the northern border of
the empire from attacking was to convert
them to Christianity. Michael III sent two
brothers, Cyril and Methodius, as mission¬
aries to the Slavs. Before they left, the
brothers devised a Slavonic alphabet based
on Greek letters and translated the Gospels
into Slavic. Their missionary efforts and
those of their disciples were successful. By
867 they had also devised a liturgy (mass) in
Slavonic, which is still used. (The early
version of the Slavic language is called Old
Church Slavonic.)

Meanwhile the Bulgars, a tribal group
from central Asia, had moved into an area
south of the Danube River in modem Bul¬
garia and mingled with the local Slavic
population there. They too agreed to accept
Christianity. But by now the pope and the
patriarch of Constantinople, the head of the
Greek-speaking Byzantine church, were en¬
gaged in both political and theological struggles.
Among the issues was whether the clergy and
the population of the Balkan peninsula would
accept the pope’s or the patriarch’s version of
Christianity. In the end, Croatia accepted
Rome, while Serbia and Bulgaria adhered to
Constantinople. These two types of Chris¬
tianity are now called Roman Catholicism
and Greek Orthodox.

The final triumph ofByzantine mission¬
ary work was the conversion of Russia a
century after the conversion of the Slavs
and Bulgars. The Rus were Swedish Vi¬
kings who had come from the area around

THREE EMPIRES: CARQLIN6IAN, BYZANTINE, AND ARAB • 49

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the Baltic Sea down the Dnieper Paver to
trade in Constantinople. They had estab¬
lished two powerful cities—a northern one,
Novgorod, and a more southern one, Kiev.
They too had blended with the native
Slavic population. By the mid-lOth cen¬
tury, the Rus were speaking Slavic and
using Slavic names.

The Radziwill Chronicle, written
in Russian, chronicled the conversion
of Vladimir, prince of Kiev (top), in
988. Envoys from Vladim ir wit¬
nessed a Christian mass in
Constantinople and returned to ex¬
plain the mass to Vladimir (bottom).

In 987 Basil II of the Macedonian dy¬
nasty was faced with rebellions in his capital.
He called on the king of Kiev, Vladimir, for
assistance. Vladimir agreed, but asked to be
rewarded with a Byzantine princess, even
though he already had several wives and
more than 800 concubines. In desperation,
Basil promised his own sister, Anna. Anna
was strong-willed and refused to marry a
pagan polygamist, so Vladimir agreed to
accept Christianity and accept only Anna as
his wife. Soon Kiev and later all of Russia
was converted to the Byzantine model of
Christianity. Once again, a Christian prin¬
cess had been instrumental in bringing
about the conversion of her husband and
his people. Eventually, the Russian king
was called a tsar, a corruption of the Roman
title of caesar.

While the Byzantine Empire was en¬
gaged in preserving itself from further attacks
by tribes migrating west and south, the
Arab Empire had split into a number of
smaller caliphates. (A caliphate was the
territory over which a caliph, an Arab
religious and secular leader, presided.) Spain
became a separate caliphate, with its capital
in Cordoba. Morocco, Egypt, Syria, and
other states split off as well. The divisions
also represented religious disagreements. A
group of Muslims held that Ali, the cousin
and son-in-law ofMuhammad, should have
been the first caliph and that he was unjustly
passed over. When Ali and his sons were
assassinated, a conflict broke out between
his followers and those of the first four
caliphs. Most of the adherents of Ali were

50 * THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Persian so that part of the split was along
national lines. But deeper religious divi¬
sions created more serious differences. The
followers of Ah, or the Shiites, rejected
many of the oral traditions of Muhammad
in which the majority group, the Sunni,
believed. The split among Muslims contin¬
ues to this day.

The Abbasids, who replaced the original
Arab caliphs, were far more worldly. They
resembled the former Persian emperors more
than the original followers of Muhammad.
The Abbasids established their capital in
Baghdad and built fine palaces there. The
grandson of the dynasty’s founder, Harun
al-Rashid (reigned 786-809), became a great
patron of writers and scientists. He knew of
Charlemagne and sent him an elephant
along with other gifts. Charlemagne used to
take the elephant with him as he traveled
throughout his realm.

In spite of the religious and political
splits, Arab culture remained unified by the
Arabic language and a common acceptance
oflslam and the Koran. All scholarship was
in the language of the Koran, even though
the population was now a mix of Greeks,
Jews, Egyptians, and Persians, among oth¬
ers. With Arabic as the common language,
the Abbasid dynasty became a time of
remarkable learning. It was at the court of
Harun al-Rashid that the Thousand and One
Nights, or Arabian Nights , was composed.
Thousand and One Nights is a series of anony¬
mous oriental stories, including those of Ali
Baba, Sinbad the Sailor, and Aladdin. The
tales are loosely woven together through

Mosques

he Arabs did not have
a building tradition
before they had con¬
quered the Byzantine and
Persian empires. Initially,
they used the structures
they found in their new
territories as mosques. But
in time the caliphs wanted
to construct their own re¬
ligious buildings to rival
the Christian churches.
The first of the grand new

mosques, the Dome of the
Rock, was built in Jerusa¬
lem in the seventh
century. The dome was
set on an octagon of ma¬
sonry, and the entire
building was decorated in
fine mosaic. The mosque
in Damascus, built in the
eighth century, was the
first to serve as a place of
worship, political center,
and school. The building

was surrounded by mina¬
rets, slender towers from
which a muezzin (cryer)
called the faithful to wor¬
ship. Mosaics were also
used to decorate the Dam¬
ascus mosque. In addition,
mosque architecture in¬
corporated several types
of arches, which showed
more variation in design
than those found in
western cathedrals.

The Dome of the Rock mosque is built over the stone on which, according to the
Bible, Abraham was going to sacrifice Isaac . Islamic tradition calls it Ascension Rock ,
from which Muhammad was taken to heaven.

THREE EMPIRES: CAROLING IAN, BYZANTINE, AND ARAB • 51

The great flourishing of learning dur¬
ing the Ahbasid dynasty in Persia led
to advances in mathematics, as¬
tronomy, medicine, and literature.
Scholars met to discuss their work in
mosques and palaces.

a framing sequence in which Scheherezade,
the wife of King Scariar, tells her husband a
new story for each of 1,001 nights to keep
him from killing her. She succeeds.

Poetry also flourished during this pe¬
riod. Among the most notable works was
the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayam. Omar
Khayam was born in the first half of the 11 th
century in the city of Nishapur in Persia.
Almost no information about his life sur¬
vives, but he was well known for his
mathematical and astronomical scholarship
during his lifetime. He wrote poems for his
own amusement, and it was only after his
death that they were discovered. His most
famous verse is:

Here with a Loaf of Bread beneath
the Bough,

A Flask of Wine, a Book of Verse—
and Thou

Beside me singing in the
Wilderness—

And Wilderness is Paradise now.

Western Europe did not learn about
Khayam’s poems until they were translated
in the 19th century.

Like the Christians before them, Ara¬
bic and Persian scholars tried to reconcile
the writings of the Greek philosophers
Plato and Aristotle with their own reli¬
gious texts. But their most important and
lasting contributions were in mathematics
and science. By translating the works of
Greek mathematicians such as Euclid and
Ptolemy, Arab scholars were introduced
to arithmetic, geometry, and trigonom¬
etry. They then added their own
scholarship to these fields. But their major
contribution to modern mathematics and
astronomy came from studying Hindu
(Indian) works on these subjects. Drawing
on Hindu thought, they created Arabic
numerals—that is, the numbers 0 through
9. Greeks and Romans had used letters—
I, V, X, C, M—for numbers but had not
developed the concept of zero. Lacking
numerals, the Greeks and Romans had
performed their computations on an aba¬
cus—an instrument with beads or counters
set on wires. Addition and subtraction
were easy with these simple tools, but
multiplication and division were very dif¬
ficult. The introduction of numerals and
zero as a placeholder made these calcula¬
tions much easier.

Other branches of science also flour¬
ished in the Arabic world. Avicenna

52 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

(980-1037) wrote medical books that ex¬
pounded on those of Galen (200-130 B.C.),
the Greek physician. Arabic thinkers also
studied Greek, Persian, and Hindu as¬
tronomy and improved on the astrolabe, a
Greek invention. The astrolabe helped to
determine the position of a heavenly body
so that mariners could establish the latitude
of their boats. The first known division of
musical melodies into equal intervals of
time, or measures, was also the work of an
Arab mathematician.

Of the three empires that grew out of the
old Roman Empire, the Muslim one had
perhaps the greatest influence on learning.
While the Carolingians studied fragments
of Greek scholarship preserved by the Irish
monks and Boethius, the Muslims had
access to the full body of work by both
Greek and Hindu philosophers and scien¬
tists. The learning of Baghdad spread west
into Spain, Sicily, and southern Italy. From
these centers, Latin scholars of the west
eventually came to learn more about their
own Greek tradition and the Arabic addi¬
tions to it. In contrast, the Byzantine Empire
did not add significandy to the learning that
the Greeks originated.

All three empires, however, experienced
problems intrinsic to large political units
put together by conquest and governed
largely by single individuals and their advis¬
ers. Even the empire of Charlemagne had
been shattered by fighting among his grand¬
sons. The Arab Empire splintered into
various smaller caliphates and other politi¬
cal units. The Byzantines managed to
recapture some of their territory in the
north through war and the spread of Chris¬
tianity, but a succession of weak rulers

could not hold on to this advantage. Weak¬
ened internally, the empires fell prey to
outside attack. The west was attacked by
Muslim pirates to the south, Magyars or
Hungarians in central Europe, and Vikings
from the north and west. The Byzantine
and Arab empires were threatened by the
Turks. In a sense, Clotilda’s prophecy held
true for all these empires: they started with
lions and ended with jackals.

Astrolabe

The astrolabe was the
most widely used astro¬
nomical instrument of the
Middle Ages. It could de¬
termine the elevation of
the sun or another star
above the horizon. In ad¬
dition, the charts incised
on its moveable plates
helped solve the complex
geometrical problems that
arose in astronomy and
navigation. The instru¬
ment had a round brass
plate with a sighting bar
attached at the center.

The outermost plate was
a star chart—the apparent
movement of the con¬
stellations around the
earth could be simulated
by rotating this plate. A
horizon plate helped lo¬
cate the angle of a star
overhead. Different hori¬
zontal plates had to be
used in different latitudes.

Sailors’ astrolabes were
simpler than those of as¬
tronomers because they

had to withstand the
winds on the oceans.
Treatises on the construc¬
tion of astrolabes survive
from as early as the sixth
century b.c. Most surviv¬
ing astrolabes have Arabic,
Latin, and Hebrew writ¬

ing on them. Texts on
how to use the instru¬
ment were widely
available. Even Geoffrey
Chaucer, the great En¬
glish writer of the late
14th century, wrote a
treatise on the astrolabe.

Astrolabes were usually made of brass so that the plates
could move smoothly and they could stand up to frequent
use either for astronomy or for navigation .

THREE EMPIRES: CAR0LINGIAN, BYZANTINE, AND ARAB • 53

Chapter 4

The Turning Point

The Vikings buried their dead with
goods that they thought would be use¬
ful to them in the afterlife. These
included boats, carts, sleds f and
horses . Decorations on these objects f
such as this wagon stave, were often
fierce dragons or warriors.

ew invaders swept into Europe in
the late ninth century. Most dev¬
astating were the Vikings, the men
from the fjords of Scandinavia.
The anguish of the local population was
well expressed in a contemporary Irish ac¬
count: “In a word, although there were a
hundred hard steeled iron heads on one
neck, and a hundred sharp, ready, cool,
never-rusting, brazen tongues in each head,
and a hundred garrulous, loud, unceasing
voices from each tongue, they could not
recount, or narrate, or enumerate, or tell,
what all the Gaedhil [Irish] suffered in com¬
mon, both men and women, laity and
clergy, old and young, noble and ignoble, of
hardship, of injury, and of oppression, in
every house, from these valiant, wrathful,
foreign, purely-pagan people.”

The weak governments of ninth-century
Europe were no match for the vigorous
new invaders. England was split into small
kingdoms. Ireland had never had a strong
government. The Carolingian Empire had
first divided into three parts, and then, as
wars continued over the Middle King¬
dom, the provinces became more and
more independent in both the French and

German parts of the empire. Who then
could withstand the determined groups of
raiders and pirates who came from
Scandinavia?

Scandinavia had little agricultural land—
mostly concentrated in southern Sweden
and Denmark—but a growing population
in the ninth and 10th centuries. As in the
fourth century, when the Goths left
Scandinavia, the population outstripped the
ability of the land to support it. Fishing,
trading, and plunder supplemented the
people’s farming, but were still not enough
to sustain their growing numbers.

To facilitate their trade and plunder, the
Swedes had developed remarkable boats
that could navigate both the rough seas of
the Atlantic and the shallow rivers of Eu¬
rope. The boats used oars and sails and
varied in size, from those built for crews of
40 to those capable of carrying 100 warriors.
They traveled at speeds of up to 10 knots.
The boats permitted the Swedes to travel
throughout the Baltic Sea and down the
rivers to Constantinople. They established
the cities of Novgorod and Kiev, where
they were known as the Rus and gave their
name to Russia.

THE TURNING POINT • 55

Viking Ships

B efore the Vikings
were Christianized,
they buried the bodies
of their dead with objects
that they had used during
life and might need for
the afterlife. The wealthy
and noble were buried in
their boats, so some ex¬
cellent examples of these
vessels have survived. In
Gokstad, Norway, near
Oslo, a large ship burial
was excavated in 1880.
The Viking buned in the
ship was 6 feet tall and
about 50 years of age. At
least 12 horses, six dogs,
and an imported peacock
were buried with him.
Beds, tent posts, sleds,
three small rowboats, and

many other items were
also found there.

The main ship was
built of oak, the decking
and masts of pine. The
keel consisted of one
58-foot-long timber.
The boat itself was 76.5
feet in length and 17.5
feet wide at midship.
The boat was very shal¬
low draft, as are all the
Viking boats that have
been discovered, and
drew only 3 feet of wa¬
ter even with a full load.
The hull was clinker-
built (the planks over¬
lapped and were riveted
together) and lashed to
the ribs of the boat with
spruce roots. The result¬

ing boat was flexible and
capable of traveling
equally well on the high
seas and up the rivers of
Europe. A replica of the
boat was built in 1893
and sailed across the At¬
lantic for the Columbian
Exposition in Chicago.
The Gokstad boat and
others may be seen in
Oslo, and the replica is
displayed in Chicago.

Near Gokstad, in
Oseberg, a boat burial for
a noble woman was exca¬
vated. She was buried
with horses as well as two
oxen, carts, and three
sleds. She must have trav¬
eled a great deal during
her lifetime.

This excavation photograph of one of the ship burials at Oseberg, Norway , shows the
condition of the ship when archaeologists first uncovered it.

The Danes and Norwegians had first
come to Europe as traders but, with the
population pressure, they turned to plun¬
dering. England was close and wealthy.
The first Viking attack occurred in 787
when they destroyed the monasteries of
northern England, including Lindisfarne
and Jarrow, which had been the home of
the Venerable Bede. In their attack on

London they used typical tactics. They
plundered the city, but could not get their
boats further up the Thames River because
of London's bridge, which was built on
pilings driven into the riverbed. By attach¬
ing ropes to the pilings and rowing their
boats rapidly downstream, the Norse man¬
aged to destroy the bridge.

They moved down the coast ofEurope,
plundering Paris by 845 and reaching Aachen
in 881. They had taken Ireland by the
mid-ninth century and all of the rivers
leading to the interior of France. The Vi¬
kings’ greed also led them to Spain and into
the Mediterranean, where they plundered
the southern coast of France as well. Going
beyond the lands known to earlier travelers,
they settled in Iceland and Greenland in the
late 800s.

The Vikings found that plundering was
more efficient if they established perma¬
nent bases at river mouths. On the coast of
France, the Danes settled on the mouth of
the Seine and Loire rivers. They also settled
in the north of England and Ireland.

At first, nothing seemed capable of
stopping their raiding. One monastery in
France, that of St. Philbert, changed its
location three times in 35 years to avoid
repeated raids. But finally some rulers did
succeed in halting the Vikings’ advances.
Alfred, the Anglo-Saxon king of Wessex
in southwest England, stopped the Norse
advance in the 870s and began to take back
other English territory from them. He
finally established a diagonal boundary
across England. The area north of the
boundary was named the Danelaw. In its
place names, this territory preserves the
Danish influence to this day.

56 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Ships were so important to the Vi¬
kings that they appeared on their
coins. One side shows the high-
bowed ship with its sail up. The
other side shows the boat loaded
with shields of the fighters.

In the eastern Frankish kingdom, the
Carolingian monarch, Amulf, defeated the
Danes in battle and thus spared Germany
from further Viking attacks. In fact Arnulf s
victory was doubly fortunate for the Ger¬
mans, because they were also facing an
attack from the east by the Hungarians, or
Magyars. Traveling on horseback, the Hun¬
garian raiders took plunder and murdered
the population. They eventually settled in
what is today called Hungary.

The western Carolingians were less ef¬
fective. The Vikings wanted to plunder
eastern France by taking their boats up the
Seine. The bridges of Paris, however, were
not as easily destroyed as the one in Lon¬
don. Furthermore, the count of Paris had
strung a chain across the Seine. The Vikings
offered to spare Paris if the Parisians would
let them pass the city. The Parisians refused,
and the city withstood two years of siege. In
the end, however, their heroic stance was a
wasted effort. Emperor Charles the Fat
eventually allowed the Vikings to go be¬
yond Paris to plunder the interior of France.

As the Vikings became Christianized
and settled down, their threat to Europe
diminished. Still, this process took one and
a half centuries. In the meantime, the popu¬
lation sought protection against the invaders.
With the exception of Alfred in England
and Arnulf in Germany, the kings had
proven useless in defending their subjects
against outside attack. The Carolingians
had agreed to give away a whole province,
now called Normandy after the Norse who
settled it. The most able ofthe Carolingians,
Charles the Simple, had died chasing a
peasant girl. She ran into the enclosed
courtyard ofher father’s house, and Charles,

following on a horse, hit his head on the
beam on top ofthe gate and broke his neck.
After his death, the Carolingians offered
their subjects little leadership or protection.

King Alfred of England (849-899) was
renowned in his own time and after. Like
Charlemagne, he had a biographer, Asser,
who modeled his life of Alfred on Einhard’s
life of Charlemagne. Asser describes the
idyllic life ofthe young Alfred. He was loved
by his parents, brought up in the royal court,
and learned to write and hunt. He had a
wonderful memory, and Asser wrote that
“his mother one day was showing him and
his brothers a certain book of Saxon poetry
which she held in her hand.” She promised
the book to the first boy who learned it by
heart. Alfred was attracted by the beauty of
the illuminated initials in the book and took
it off to ask his tutor to read to him. He then
returned to his mother and repeated it word
for word, thereby winning the book.

Alfred’s interest in learning and books
was evident throughout his reign and was
shared by other Anglo-Saxons. He encour¬
aged the translation of Boethius and other
authors from Latin to Anglo-Saxon and
contributed to the translations himself. In a
preface to Gregory the Great’s Pastoral Care,
he noted that it was written “before every¬
thing was ravaged and burned, when
England’s churches overflowed with trea¬
sures and books.” But more significant for
our appreciation of the rich culture that
flourished under Alfred’s encouragement
was the recording of Anglo-Saxon hymns
and poems, including a written version of
Beowulf

Under Alfred’s successors, the kingdom
of Wessex gradually spread even farther. In

The Vikings used long, double-
edged swords that took two hands to
swing. The cross bar was designed to
keep the hands from sliding down
the blade. The pommel (handle)
was of woodbound with leather to
soften the effects of blows to the
user's hands. Since this sword comes
from a tomb, the pommel has long
since rotted away.

THE TURNING POINT • 57

Alfred (right) successfully defended his
kingdom from Viking invasion. In
making the peace with one of their
leaders, Gut 1 1 rum (left), he was able
to settle them in a region of northeast¬
ern England called the Danelaw. But
the victory was hardly complete, and
the Anglo-Saxons had to pay tribute,
or Danegeld, to the Vikings to keep
them from invading again.

time the whole of England as far as the
Welsh and Scottish borders was united
under one king. The Danes, however, did
not give up their ambitions to conquer
England, and, with new invasions in 1016,
King Canute managed to take Norway and
England and incorporate them into his
kingdom of Denmark. He died in 1035,
and his successors were unable to hold on to
England, which reverted to a pious descen¬
ded of Alfred’s Wessex dynasty, Edward
the Confessor.

In France and elsewhere royal authority
had failed to provide the protection that
Alfred had given his people, and the popu¬
lation sought help from local strongmen. In
Paris, the local count, Hugh Capet, proved
capable of defending his city, so the inhabit¬
ants were more loyal to him than to the
Carolingians who had sold them out to the
Vikings. In 987 Hugh Capet took the title of
king and thus founded the Capetian dynasty
that ruled France until the early 14th cen¬
tury. Initially, however, Hugh controlled
only the area around Paris. Other counts and
dukes assumed control over their own terri¬
tories and fought off the Viking raiders in
these areas. Sometimes a local strongman or
a bishop had the greatest success in defending
the people against raids. Whether or not the
strongmen had a title, they were generally
referred to as “nobles.”

The nobles maintained households of
armed retainers to help them defend their
territory. In many ways, the idea of a war
chief surrounding himself with a band of
fighting men resembled that of the Ger¬
manic commitatus (literally, a group of fighters
gathered together). But this system was
more formal: the nobles were assured of a

gift of land and membership in the upper
class. All men in the nobility trained to
become knights—that is, they were in¬
structed in the use of amis in preparation
for becoming professional warriors. Some
of them were warriors all their lives. Others
were given land by the lords and became
vassals, men who swore to defend and
serve their lord in return for the land. In
the hierarchy of the nobles, kings had the
highest title, followed by dukes, counts,
marquises, and barons. What set these nobles
apart from knights was their possession of
land and enough wealth to secure other
lords or at least knights as their clients.

Boys began the training in arms for
knighthood when they were seven or eight.
Often they were taken into another noble’s
household where they would be trained
with other boys of their age. They learned
to ride horses, wear helmets and chain-link
mail (armor), use swords and spears, and
carry a shield.

Warfare had changed under the
Carolingians. Romans had used legions of
foot soldiers, while the Germanic tribes had
a light and highly mobile cavalry. Battles
were often fought on foot. But the
Carolingians had acquired, perhaps from
the Byzantines, a larger type of horse that
could support a rider wearing a shirt of mail,
leggings, and helmet and carrying a shield,
lance, and sword. Romans stayed on their
horses by clasping their knees around them.
The Carolingian mounted warriors, how¬
ever, had stirrups that permitted them to
remain in their saddles on the large horses
even when they were hit by a lance held by
another warrior riding toward them at full
speed. The stirrups may have first been used

58 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

by the nomadic tribes that invaded Europe.
Not only was the training exacting for
knights, the horse and equipment were
very expensive. A war horse was equivalent
in price to four oxen. Adding the armor and
weapons, the cost of equipping a knight was
22 oxen. The biggest plow teams used by
the peasants had only eight oxen, therefore
becoming a knight was far beyond the
means of any of them.

Another military development during
the period of invasions was the castle. Be¬
cause the Vikings did not want to waste
time on protracted sieges, they tended to
leave fortresses and protected cities alone
and raid the surrounding countryside in¬
stead. The castles at this time—called
motte-and-bailey casdes—did not resemble
the elaborate stone structures of the later
Middle Ages. The motte was a natural hill
or one that had been built up from nearby
stone and earth. It was topped with a fort or
stockade made from tree trunks sunk into
the ground and sharpened at the top. The
bailey had a larger, lower palisade con¬
structed in the same way that enclosed a
larger space and was attached to or sur¬
rounded the motte. The bailey was large
enough to hold and protect animals and
other valuables of the lord and his peasants.
If the raiders took the bailey, the people
could retreat into the motte fort and, they
hoped, at least save their lives.

Building up the motte often left a circu¬
lar trench around the mound that was called
the moat. Filled with water, it was so
muddy that attackers sank in it. The mounds
themselves were quickly covered with grass
that was slippery to climb. At the top was
the stockade of tree trunks that shielded the

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castle’s defenders, who shot arrows and
threw stones at the besiegers. As castles
became more permanent, the wooden walls
were replaced with stone ones, which had
the added advantage of resisting fire.

Castles represented an investment of
labor and money. Those who had them
built became the protectors of their neigh¬
bors, who in turn became the castle owners’
clients, beholden to them for protection. A
whole system of personal ties and mutual
obligations, which modern historians have
termed feudalism, characterized the social
and governmental arrangements of France
at the time. Powerful lords, such as the
counts and dukes, needed a group of fighters

Anglo-Saxon society valued literacy.
In addition to histories, poetry, in¬
structional literature, and religious
texts, they preserved their legal docu¬
ments in written form in Old English
or Latin. Tins charter, by which King
Canute granted land to a monk,

Aefic, is written on parchment in
Latin in the careful lettering typical of
the Anglo-Saxons. The land is de¬
scribed above and the names of the
witnesses are written below.

THE TURNING POINT • 59

Chain Mail and Knisltt'8 Waapons

M ail, an iron mesh
tunic, was made
from iron rings that
were interconnected.
The rings were pieces of
wire with the ends riv¬
eted together. On some
mail, these rings were
alternated with solid
disks. The rings were
fashioned together to
form a tunic, called a
hauberk, that was heavy,
but flexible. It was sus¬
pended from the
shoulders and hung
down to the knees so
that a knight’s thighs
would be protected.
Knights also wore pad¬
ded tunics stuffed with
wool called gambesons.

A gambeson stopped the
metal from chafing the
skin and provided fur¬
ther protection. Warriors
might also have worn
mail on their legs.

Mail could be pen¬
etrated by spears and
arrows, so some knights
wore hardened leather or
whalebone as well as ar¬
mor. Their helmets were
conical and had a nasal
bar in the front to give
the face some protection.
In addition, the knights
carried large, kite-shaped
shields to ward off blows
and arrows. Their weap¬
ons included axes,

swords, lances, and
maces.

Although chain mail
continued to be used
throughout the Middle
Ages, as bows became
more powerful knights fa¬
vored steel plates for
armor. These were harder
to penetrate and had con¬
vex surfaces to deflect
arrows. Knights also fa¬
vored a helmet with a
visor that could be low¬
ered so that the entire face
was covered. Gauntlets
protected the hands from
arrows. A fully clad knight
in mail and plate armor
riding a horse that might
also be clad in armor was
the equivalent of a medi¬
eval tank.

The sword was the
single most important
implement of war. A
sword needed to be both
strong and sharp. Viking
smiths made the blades
from several strips of
iron, which they twisted
and hammered out many
times to ensure their du¬
rability and strength. The
blades were double-
edged, with a groove
running down the cen¬
ter. The groove made
the blade lighter and
more flexible. The guard
was a simple crosspiece
intended to keep the

By the 15th century knights
preferred a full suit of plate
armor. Where the plates
joined—at the neck, over
the upper legs, and at the
elbows—they used chain
mail for protection.

hand from running
down on the blade. A
pommel surrounded by
wood and bound with
wire or leather made the
handle. The blades were
used for cutting rather
than thrusting.

to protect and administer their territory, so
they offered lesser nobles land to support
themselves if they would look after their
interests in a particular district. The grant of
land was called a fief (rhymes with “leaf’)
and is derived from the old German word
fthu for property.

In theory the king held all the land, and
the counts and dukes simply used it at his
pleasure. They, in turn, granted it to the
barons and knights. Because the kings were

weak, however, the counts and dukes had
considerable control over the land granted
to them. They took their names from
their provinces. For example, there was a
Duke of Aquitaine and a Count of Flan¬
ders. Lesser nobles, such as Geoffrey de
Mandeville and Roger de Beaumont, took
the names of their principal castles.

A warrior who received a fief from an
overlord swore that he would be his homme
(“man” in French) and serve him in times
of need. This oath was called homage. Here
is an early 12th-century example: Count
William of Flanders asked a warrior if he
was willing to become his man, and the
warrior replied that he was. The warrior
then clasped his hands together, and the
count put his own hands around them. The
two men exchanged a kiss of peace. Next
the man did fealty—that is, he swore on his
faith to keep the terms of his vassalage: “I
promise on my faith that I will in future be
faithful to Count William and will observe
my homage to him completely against all
persons in good faith and without deceit.”
The man then took this oath on the relics
(bones) of a saint. Finally, Count William
gave him a little rod that he held in his hand
to indicate that he was now invested with
the fief.

Giving over land as a fief was risky. A
lord needed to ensure that the vassal would
meet the obligations that the gift implied.
By the 13th century the arrangements had
become more formal. Written charters
spelled out the services the lord and his
vassal owed each other. Because the institu¬
tion began as a military one, fighting, not
surprisingly, was the vassal’s first obligation.

To avoid abuse, specific terms were set.

60 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

The vassal was to serve his lord in war at his
own expense. He was required to provide
the armor, horses, and men needed to
support the war effort. If the period of
service was more than 40 days, however,
the lord had to help pay the costs. The vassal
also had to accompany his lord in times of
peace and be present at his castle for two or
three months each year.

The lord also had certain rights that he
could exercise to protect his land. He al¬
ways reserved the right to take the land back
from an insubordinate vassal. In practice,
however, retrieving land could be difficult,
because an angry vassal might besiege the
lord’s castle or cause a revolt among his
fellow vassals. A more convenient way of
addressing the problem was to impose con¬
trols over inheritance. When the vassal
died, the lord retained the right to relief,
that is, to impose a tax for passing the estate
onto the heir. If the vassal died leaving
minor children, the lord claimed the right
to wardship of the children until they reached
the age of 21, the usual age of majority and
of knighthood.

The lord could take the proceeds of the
estate during this period. He also reserved
the right to marry the widow and daughters
to anyone of his choice. The lord could
demand that the vassal contribute to the
marriage gifts (dowries) ofhis daughters and
the knighting of his first son. Finally, the
lord could go to his vassal’s estate with his
retinue, which might include a hundred
men, and sit and eat for a period of his
choice. This right was called “purveyance.”
In the 16th century Queen Elizabeth I took
advantage of this right as a way of keeping
her potentially rebellious nobles sufficiently

A noble father presents his reluc¬
tant young son to the care of
monks. Since the first-born son
was the only one who could in¬
herit property, fathers often
dedicated younger sons to monas¬
teries, whether or not they wanted
to become monks. Since fathers
had to make marriage alliances for
daughters, they often found it
convenient to put extra daughters
in nunneries. If the noble family
had endowed the monastery, the
son or daughter might rise to be
the abbot or abbess.

poor that they could not afford to form
armies against her. In return for what seemed
like burdensome rights, the lord gave the
fief and offered his vassals protection in
times of war or raiding.

The solemn oaths of loyalty and the
contracts of service would seem a peaceful
solution for local government, yet warfare
was endemic in feudal Europe. Vassals ac¬
cepted fiefs from different lords, so they
often had conflicting loyalties. When a
weakling or a daughter inherited a fief and
could not defend it, lords and competing
kin fought on the battlefield and in the
courts to win control of the land.

Furthermore, the Frankish custom of
equal inheritances for all sons had given way
to primogeniture, or inheritance by the
firstborn son and, when there were no sons,
by the daughters in equal portions. Thus
younger sons were disinherited, and had to
look for other ways to make a living. Some
became priests or monks, sometimes against
their will. Because younger sons were often
raised to be knights like their eldest brother,
many found the peaceful ways advocated
by the Church difficult to adhere to. Clergy
were not supposed to spill blood, so they
could not carry swords. (However, they
were permitted to use spiked clubs known
as maces.)

THE TURNING POINT * 61

Other younger sons became knights in
the service of various lords, and still others
tried to conquer land for themselves. Fight¬
ing was so disruptive that influential abbots
and bishops in France acted as peacekeep¬
ers. They persuaded the local lords to agree
to the Truce of God, which protected the
vineyards and the peasants’ animals and
limited fighting to about four days a week,
excluding holy days. They also established
a treasure chest that could be drawn upon
by local lords to ensure the Peace of God by
supporting armed intervention in local fights.

The social values that feudalism pro¬
duced are best expressed in the poem The
Song of Roland , which was first written
down in the early 12th century. A nephew
and vassal of Charlemagne, Roland was a
member of the rear guard for Charlemagne’s
troops. The army managed to fight off the
Arabs, but in the end was reduced to himself,
his friend and fellow nobleman Oliver, and
Archbishop Turpin, who was armed with a
mace as befitted his clerical status.

A somewhat foolhardy young man,
Roland could have summoned help long
before this desperate situation occurred
because he had a famous horn, Oliphant (a
horn made from an elephant tusk). When,
at last, he decided to blow it, Oliver chas¬
tised him by saying, “Wise courage is not
madness, and measure is better than rash¬
ness. Through thy folly these Franks have
come to their death; nevermore shall Charles
the king [Charlemagne] have service at our
hands. Hadst thou taken my counsel, my
liege lord would be here, and this batde
ended.” Charlemagne heard Oliphant but
arrived too late to save the three. Arch¬
bishop Turpin died on the ground: “His

bowels had fallen out of his body, and his
brains are oozing out of his forehead.”
Count Roland lay down to die under a pine
tree and called to mind “all the lands he had
won by his valor, and sweet France, and the
men of his lineage, and Charles, his liege
lord, who had brought him up in his
household.” He then wept and died.

Absent from The Song of Roland and
other such poems of valor and warfare from
this period is a strong role for women.
Roland has a fiancee in France, but as he
dies he thinks ofhis liege lord, not of the girl
he would have married. Noble women in
this period of constant warfare had to be
resourceful and capable of taking control of
a casde. They did not learn to fight, as their
brothers did, but they did learn to admin¬
ister estates, run a household full of rough
warriors, and defend a castle if it was be¬
sieged. If they were heiresses to a fief, they
took the vows of homage and fealty to their
lord but had to supply a knight to fight in
their place. Likewise, many abbots and
even bishops held their lands from the king
or another lord and had to swear homage
and fealty for their fiefs.

As membership in the nobility and the
transfer of fiefs became increasingly heredi¬
tary, women became more and more
important as pawns in marriage alliances. A
woman who had no brothers was a valuable
heiress because the man she married would
get the use of her fief. Women in such
circumstances were married off by their
fathers or liege lords when they were quite
young. They had no say in the matter, but
would be married to the man who offered
their father or their lord the best potential
for political alliance, land acquisition, or

military aid. Thus, the Duke of Aquitaine's
only heir, a young daughter, Eleanor of
Aquitaine, was married to Loius VII, king
of France. Through this union, Eleanor’s
entire estate, which included a large portion
of southwestern France, came under the
control of Louis VII. The couple was so
mismatched, however, that the marriage
was eventually annulled.

When the nobility were not at war they
spent their time in and around the castle.
Hunting was very popular, and even women
took part. Banquets and feasting, accompa¬
nied by recitations of chansons de geste
(literally, “songs of great deeds”), were also
favorite pastimes. Off the battlefield, men
wore a loose-fitting tunic that was belted at
the waist and dropped to the knees or
slightly above. The legs were covered with
a sort of tights. A mantle, fastened at the
throat or the right shoulder with a brooch,
completed the costume. They wore their
hair short and are frequently represented as
clean-shaven.

Women wore long tunics that covered
them from the chin to the feet. They too
wore belts and mantles attached by brooches.
When they were young, their hair hung
free, but later it was bound up with ties.
Older women and married women wore
headdresses or veils over their hair. Hoods
provided both sexes with protection from
rain and other inclement weather. Most
clothing was made of linen and wool. Furs
might be used as decoration or as lining for
mantles to provide additional warmth. Silk
was reserved for special occasions and for
use by the clergy. Women in all ranks of life
used a spindle to turn wool and linen into
thread for weaving. In addition, upper-class

62 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

women embroidered tapestries and cer¬
emonial clothing.

Several elements contributed to the
nobility’s exclusivity, including the expense
of horses and armor, the importance of
castles for defense, and the long training
required to use arms. Certain behavior and
values, as reflected in The Song of Roland,
also set members of the class apart from
those of lower rank. Most importantly, to
be noble meant being bom into the class,
because its privileges of membership could
be gained only by heredity. The members
of the noble class, along with the clergy,
who were often the younger sons of nobles,
comprised about 5 to 10 percent of the total
population. The other 90 to 95 percent
were peasants. Very few people fell outside
the categories of noble and peasant during
the early Middle Ages. Artisans and mer¬
chants were few. Long-distance trade was
much less important than it had been in
Roman times. The populations of towns
had dropped to the level of villages, and the
inhabitants engaged as much in agriculture
as in crafts.

The Roman latifundia system of farm¬
ing on large estates was readily adaptable to
the needs of both the peasantry and the
nobility in the early Middle Ages. The
Carolingians had adapted the system on
estates that included both the remnants of
the Roman agricultural population and
the more newly arrived Franks. It was
further modified during and after the pe¬
riod of Viking invasions.

These agricultural estates were called
manors. Manors were an effective system
for organizing agriculture and were found
all over Europe in areas where grain was

Poems Recount the Lives and Battles of Heroes

Seeing his knights being massacred by the Arabs, Roland, the hero of The Song of
Roland, finally blows his horn, Oliphant, to summon Charlemagne.

T he warrior societies of
both the Vikings and
the early feudal period
enjoyed the recitation of
poems, which recounted
histories, battles, tales of
deceit and valor, and
deeds of gods, kings, and
adventurers. The poems
were recited to the ac¬
companiment of a harp.

The Icelandic sagas
were written down in
the 12th and 13th centu¬
ries. Some of them, such
as the Volsungasaga, tell
the same story as the
German Nibelungenlied —
that of a dragon
protecting a magic trea¬
sure. Others narrate the
adventures of actual
people and events, such

as Leif Ericsson and the
discovery of Vineland.

The chansons de geste, or,
literally, songs of great
deeds, were more deliber¬
ate compositions in French.
Although harkening back
to the Carolingian era, they
reflect the society of 11th-
and 12th-century France.
The Chanson de Roland
(Song of Roland) is the
best known of the chansons
de geste. The poem includes
stirring battle scenes and
descriptions of an aged and
venerable Charlemagne,
who is presented as a pro¬
totype of the ideal feudal
king. Also memorable is
the trial by battle of the
traitor, Ganelon, and his
final execution, during

which he is bound to four
war horses and pulled in
four directions:

And so they order four
war-horses brought out
To which they tie
Ganelon’s feet and
hands.

These are proud chargers,
spirited, bred for speed:
Four servants urge them
the way they ought
to go.

There where a river across
a meadow flows,

Count Ganelon is utterly
destroyed:

His ligaments are twisted
and stretched out,

His every limb is cracked
and split apart;

On the green grass the
bright blood runs in
streams.

cultivated. Usually, but not always, they
coincided with villages. Fiefs ranged in size
from a portion of a manor to many manors.
The peasants had houses in the village with
some garden and yard space around them
for fruit trees, outbuildings, and straw stacks.
The village also had a church and residence
for the local priest. It might also have a
manor house for the lord to stay in when he
visited and a residence for his estate man¬
ager, the steward. The fields, which

THE TURNING POINT • 63

surrounded the village, might be divided
into two or three large areas, depending on
the type of agriculture undertaken. Each
field consisted of several hundred acres.

These large fields were not cultivated as
units but were divided into a series of strips
to be farmed by village families. The strips
were scattered through all three fields. The
best strips were reserved for the lord of the
manor and were called demesne (literally,
belonging to a lord) lands. The parish priest
also had strips reserved for his use, and these
were called glebe (literally, soil or earth)
lands. The rest of the strips in the common
fields were divided among the peasants for
their use. This land was apportioned so that
all received a mix of good and bad holdings,
but the number of acres that each family
held varied considerably. The better-off
peasants had 30 acres or more, the moder¬
ately well-off peasants had about 15 acres,
and the poorer ones had 5 or 6 acres.

The division of the manor into two or
three large fields and the distribution of
strips were also done for conservation rea¬
sons. The division of the fields depended on
the fertility of the soil The thinner soils,
such as those found around the Mediterra¬
nean or in hilltop areas, could be cultivated
only every other year. Consequently, a
two-field system predominated in those
regions. One of the large open fields was

allowed to remain fallow, or uncultivated,
for a year to regain its fertility while the
other field was cultivated. In river valleys
and other regions with deeper, richer soil,
a three-field system was employed. Under
this system one third of the land lay fallow
each year, and the other two fields were
cultivated. The strips in the fields were laid
out in such a way that they would capture
moisture, avoid erosion, and get plenty of
sunshine. On hillsides, for instance, the
strips ran horizontally around the slope
rather than vertically. Where necessary,
drainage ditches were constructed to draw
water off wet ground. Likewise, terraces
were built to trap water in arid areas.

Crop rotation also increased fertility.
Under the three-field crop rotation system,
the first field would be planted in the fall
with winter wheat. Wheat was a heavy
feeder, taking many nutriments from the
soil, so the next year the field was planted
with peas or oats. Peas had many advan¬
tages. Legumes (peas and beans) fixed
nitrogen in the soil, renewing its fertility.
Peas were also a source of protein, and thus
provided the peasants with a more bal¬
anced diet than one containing only wheat
and other grains. The third year the field lay
fallow and was used to graze the village
herds so that their manure fertilized the
soil. Animal protein, however, did not

Women worked mostly around the
house and village, caring for children,
cooking, brewing ale, making cheese,
gardening, and tending to domestic
animals. When the crops were ready
to harvest, however, the women as
well as men went out to bring in
the crops.

make up a large part of the peasants’ diet
because they did not have enough grass and
grain to feed all of their animals throughout
the winter.

The second field was planted with peas
or oats the first year, lay fallow the second,
and was sown with wheat the third. The
third field lay fallow the first year, sown
with wheat the second, and planted with
peas or oats the third. By rotating the crops
in this way farmers had a field of wheat and
one of peas or oats every year.

The exploitation of the fields was similar
to that practiced on the Carolingian estates.
The duties of each peasant on the manor
were spelled out in the custumal, the register
of customary services and rents that each
family owed. Slavery, prevalent on
Carolingian estates, disappeared, but peas¬
ants were still categorized as free or unfree.
The unfree peasants were called serfs or
villeins. (“Villein” derives from villa, mean¬
ing “farm.”) On the surface, the differences
between the two groups did not seem too
great. Both free peasants and serfs had to
work for the lord. They did the same sorts
of work as the Carolingian peasants: They
had to plow the lord’s land, plant it, reap
and harvest it, carry the crops to market, and
mend his fences, roads, and home.

But the serfs had to provide other types
of services and dues that free peasants did
not. Free peasants had title to their lands,
whereas custom dictated that serfs had only
the right to take over their father’s holding
and had to pay a death due to do so. Usually
the due included a serf s best plow oxen as
well as an entry fee. Serfs also paid an annual
rent for their land. Furthermore, whereas

64 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

free peasants could leave the manor as they
wished, serfs were bound to the land and
had to pay the lord if they wished to leave.

Certain other dues were also part of a
serf 5 s lot in life. When his daughter married,
he had to pay a special tax to the lord,
known as the merchet, and if his son wished
to leave the manor, he had to pay for that as
well. He also owed special rents and gifts,
including the traditional gifts of fowl on
feast days such as Christmas, and eggs at
Easter. Our customs of having fowl for
Christmas dinner and eating eggs at Easter
derive from these practices.

As in the Carolingian period, marriages
between the free and unfree peasants were
common, so it was hard to keep the two
groups distinct. In practice, there was little
difference between them in the 10th and
11th centuries. A free peasant could move
his family about if he wished, but there
were few places to move. If he had a lord
who offered him protection from the Vi¬
kings or Hungarians (Magyars), he was
happy enough to stay where he was. If the
manor was sacked, both the free and unfree
peasants might leave and seek their fortunes
elsewhere. Basically, livelihoods were so
tenuous that people were grateful for the
security of having land to work and protec¬
tion during invasions. Only in the 12th
century, when new lands opened up and
towns began to grow, offering an opportu¬
nity for new ways of earning a living, did
peasants begin to care about whether they
were free or unfree.

Like the innovations in knights’ fighting
equipment, innovations in the tools of
cultivation profoundly changed medieval

society. The larger horse was not only a
better cavalry animal, but also made a better
cart horse and plow beast. Romans had not
used horses as draft animals because they did
not have the horse collar. Instead they used
oxen, which could be yoked to a plow or a
cart. Horses in harnesses could pull only
light objects, such as a chariot, because they
would choke if the harnesses were pulled
too tightly around their throats. The medi¬
eval invention of the horse collar, however,
distributed the weight around a horse’s
shoulders so it could pull a plow or heavily
loaded cart.

In the early Middle Ages the horseshoe
also came into use. It allowed horses hooves
to withstand a heavier load, be it a fully
armed man, a cart, or a plow. Oxen contin¬
ued to be used for agriculture, but horses
were faster as draught animals. They were,
however, more expensive to feed because
they needed grain rather than just pasture.

Improved plow technology revolution¬
ized agriculture in the Middle Ages. The
Romans had used a simple plow that was
really a hardened, sharp stick drawn by
oxen. It was very effective in the sandy,

The new plow used in the Middle
Ages for the heavy soils of northern
Europe had wheels to help move the
plow along and a coulter, a sort of long
knife, to cut through the sod. The ac¬
tual plowshare is attached to the end of
the shaft that the man holds. A mold
board on the shaft turned the soil over
and formed a furrow. The horses are
equipped with collars that distributed
the burden of pulling the plow to the
horses' shoulders. The man in the
background is planting seeds.

THE TURNING POINT • 65

W\\en William the Conqueror won
the Battle of Hastings in 1066, he
commemorated his victory by estab¬
lishing a monastery on the site of the
battle. The monks kept a chronicle of
events and in this 12th century
manuscript initial depicted a king on
a throne to represent their benefactor .
It is not a real likeness.

light soils of the Mediterranean area, but
not adequate for the heavier clay and allu¬
vial soils of the fertile river valleys of northern
Europe. The plow invented for these areas
employed a coulter, or knife, to cut the
heavy grass sod before the plowshare turned
it. Added to the plowshare was a mold-
board that turned the soil over into furrows,
thus burying the weeds and grass to rot.
After plowing, a harrow (a tool used to
pulverize lumps in the soil) went over the
furrows to break up the soil and prepare it
for planting. Such improvements in plow¬
ing meant that lands that had not previously
been used for agriculture could now be
brought into cultivation.

The overall result of these improve¬
ments was that yields from planting
increased dramatically. In the Carolingian

period, every bushel of wheat planted
yielded only two or three bushels at har¬
vest. One of those bushels, of course, had
to be saved for seed wheat for the next
year. With crop rotation and a better
plow, yields went up to as much as seven
bushels harvested for every bushel planted.
The implications of this early agricultural
revolution were immense for medieval
Europe. Everyone’s diet improved, so the
population increased in all social classes.
Lords and peasants alike began to trade
their surplus grain for other items. This
desire, in turn, encouraged a renewal of
long-distance trade and the development
of towns where goods were manufactured
for expanded markets.

In 1066 the Norse made one more
major foray into England—the Norman
Conquest. The English king, Edward the
Confessor, had married Edith, the sister of
the Anglo-Saxon nobleman Harold
Godwinson, but they had no children. As
the king aged, three powerful men
weighed the possibilities of taking over his
kingdom. Harold Godwinson’s family was
not of royal blood. Still, for the
Anglo-Saxons, his was the strongest claim
because ofhis sister’s marriage. KingHarald
Hardrada of Norway, who was the subject
of a Norse saga, made his claim through
Denmark’s King Canute who had also
been king of England. Duke William of
Normandy, a Dane by descent, main¬
tained that Edward the Confessor had
promised the throne to him and that
Harold Godwinson, on a visit to
Normandy, had sworn an oath to uphold
this claim. Edward the Confessor was half
Norman and had grown up in Normandy.

66 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

In 1066, as Edward the Confessor neared
death, a comet appeared in the sky. Mod¬
ern astronomers have since identified it as
Halley’s Comet, but people in England
interpreted it as a dire prediction ofterrible
events to come. The Anglo-Saxons met
and elected Harold Godwinson as their
king. Harald Hardrada immediately in¬
vaded the north of England and pressed
toward York. Harold Godwinson man¬
aged to defeat him, but two weeks later, on
October 14, Duke William’s fleet arrived
from Normandy. William was well pre¬
pared. He brought supplies, war horses,
and even a prefabricated castle. His neigh¬
bors in France and many of the younger
sons of the nobility joined his army in the
hope of being rewarded with fiefs of their
own. The two armies met at Hastings on
the southern coast of England. Harold’s
troops had the better position on a rise, and
made a shield wall to protect themselves.
The Normans had to attack by going
uphill. At some point, however, the shield
wall broke down, and Harold was shot in
the eye with an arrow. The Normans were
victorious.

One battle did not amount to a con¬
quest, however. William set off to the west
with his army, building castles in every
county and castles in every location where
he met resistance. He proceeded north,
where he met the greatest opposition. He
killed many people there and destroyed
much of their farmland. London was his
final target. By the time he reached the city,
the rest of England had been conquered,
and London could no longer hold out.
There William built the biggest of his
castles, the Tower of London. Along the

route of his conquest, he killed or drove out
the Anglo-Saxon noblemen, but married
their women to his followers when he gave
them the noblemen’s land. His followers
were thus richly rewarded with fiefs, and
England came to experience the feudal
system as it existed in France. Likewise, the
English peasantry became serfs and were
organized into the manorial system by their
Norman and French overlords.

When the conquest was complete and
the English population subdued, William
returned to Normandy and ruled England
from a distance. By 1086 he began to
survey the real estate and wealth he had
acquired in such a brutal way. He sent out
his officials to inquire about and record the
number of fields, farm animals, agricul¬
tural implements, and people he had under
his control. This great survey was pre¬
served and is called the Domesday Book , or
the lord’s (dominus) book.

In addition to the Domesday Book, two
remarkable sources survive for the study of
the Norman Conquest. One, which gives
the English side, is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

The Bayeux tapes tty was commis¬
sioned by the Normans to tell their
version of events leading up to the
conquest and battle . The Normans
brought food, horses, weapons, and
even a prefabricated castle in boats
that were still built in Viking style.
They wore chain mail, carried sail¬
like shields, and were armed with
swords and lances.

THE TURNIN6 POINT • 67

St. Maurice brings Otto I into the
presence of Christ . Otto carries a rep¬
lica of the church he has built in honor
of St. Maurice. St. Peter stands to
the right holding his sytnbol } two
keys. The Ottomans were great pa¬
trons of the Church.

It had been started in the days of Alfred and
continues through the death ofWilliam. In
it William is described as:

a very wise and great man, and more
honored and more powerful than
any of his predecessors; ... he
caused castles to be built and op¬
pressed the poor; ... he was of great
sternness, and he took from his sub¬
jects many marks of gold and many
hundred pounds of silver, and this
either with or without nght and
with little need. . . . The rich com¬
plained and the poor murmured, but
he was so sturdy that he recked
naught of them; they must will all
that the king willed, if they would
live, or would keep their lands.

The author comments that for the Domesday

survey “so narrowly he had them investigate

that there was not a single hide nor a rood of
land, nor—it is a shame to tell though he
thought it no shame to do—was there an ox
or a cow or a pig that was not set down in the
accounts.” But in the end, the author con¬
cedes that a man could travel from one end
of the kingdom to the other with a bosom
full of gold and not be robbed. William had,
at least, brought peace.

The other source is the Bayeux Tapestry,
named for the town in France in which it is
housed. Commissioned by the Normans, it
is really an elaborate embroidery rather than
a woven tapestry and tells the story of the
conquest from the Norman point of view,
through pictures and a mnning commen¬
tary in Latin. The tapestry is 230 feet long
and 20 inches wide (70 meters by 51 cen¬
timeters). The death of Edward, the comet,
Harold’s oath, the preparations for the ex¬
pedition, the feast before the batde, the
battle, and the portable castle are all repre¬
sented. On the border are other illustrations,
including plowing scenes.

Germany’s response to the end of the
Viking invasions was very different from
that of France or England. Germany had
not suffered as much, so its recovery was
quicker. Otto I the Great (reigned 936-
973) managed to bring some unity to the
territory ofGermany and even to the Middle
Kingdom that had been given to Lothair by
the Treaty of Verdun a century earlier. He
defeated the Magyars, and the process of
Christianizing northeastern Europe began.
Moving down into Italy to rescue the pope,
much as Charlemagne had done, Otto took
the title of “Roman Emperor” in 962. The
German Kingdon became known eventu¬
ally as the Holy Roman Empire.

68 * THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Feudalism was late in coming to Ger¬
many. Although the great lords became
vassals of the emperor, they did not have
vassals of their own. The emperors gov¬
erned their territory with bishops and abbots
rather than their vassals because they could
appoint the churchmen, whereas the vassals
held their positions by hereditary claims.
Furthermore, the bishops and abbots were
educated men and made very good admin¬
istrators. They were also loyal to the emperor
who appointed them.

Under the patronage of Otto and his
dynasty, the Ottonians, learning flourished
in Germany. Two scholars stand out from
this period. One is the nun Roswitha of
Gandersheim (c. 937-1004). She came from
a noble family of Saxony but was put into
a Benedictine nunnery at an early age.
Gandersheim was founded by the Duke of
Saxony in 852 and was governed by women
who belonged to the Saxon dynasty. Otto
the Great’s younger brother, a bishop, encour¬
aged learning at the nunnery, so Roswitha
was educated by a series of learned nuns.

During her early education, she wrote
religious poetry on the life and miracles of
the Virgin Mary and lives of other saints.
She then read the comedies of Roman
playwrights. Roswitha was beguiled by
their language but bothered by the world¬
liness of their subject matter. Nevertheless,
seeing the potential of drama, she began to
write religious plays—the first plays written
since Roman times. Finally, she turned to
writing histories, including the Deeds of
Otto about Otto the Great.

The other great scholar of the age was
a monk, Gerbert of Aurillac in France
(d. 1003). Gerbert came from a peasant

family, but his genius was recognized by the
local monks who educated him. He was
taken to Spain, where he came into contact
with the great learning of the Arab and
Hebrew populations in Barcelona. Although
he studied with Christian scholars there
because he did not know Arabic, he learned
something of Arab mathematics. Back in
Europe, he demonstrated the mathematical
basis of music by using vibrating strings. He
also taught astronomy. Although he had an
abacus with Arabic numerals, he did not use
the zero as the Arabs did. His fame in France
brought him patronage from the Ottonians,
who appointed him pope. He served as
Sylvester II. So great was his knowledge
that people thought he was a necromancer,
or sorcerer. In reality, he was a man ahead
of his time.

By 1050, Europe was beginning to de¬
velop a strong economy and a vibrant
culture that brought Roman, Christian,
and Germanic elements into a coherent
whole. The feudal arrangements among
the nobility, and the manorial system for
organizing land and labor, spread all over
Europe. Kings such as William the Con¬
queror of England and Otto the Great of
Germany were reviving a sense of unified
monarchies. Towns and trade were begin¬
ning to develop and Europeans began to
travel, explore, and conquer new territo¬
ries. Once again scholars had the leisure and
intellectual curiosity to ask new questions.
Even the weather cooperated as Europe
experienced several centuries of warmer
than usual weather. The 12th century was
such an expansive period that a growth
metaphor is often used to describe it: the
flowering of the Middle Ages.

THE TURNING POINT • 69

^C^X.frr M 3i’ x i

WSJ

Chapter 5

The Flowering of
Medieval Europe

Courtly love, the recommended stan¬
dards of polite relationships between
knights and ladies in medieval Eu¬
rope, changed manners at the time
and has had a long-lasting influence
on our ideas of courtesy.

E leanor of Aquitaine, heiress of the
Duke of Aquitaine, married the king
of France as a teenager. While in
Paris she perhaps heard the leading
philosopher of the day (Peter Abelard) lec¬
ture, was chastised by a saint (Bernard of
Clairvaux), and advised by Abbot Suger,
who commissioned the first Gothic build¬
ing. Eleanor also went on the second Crusade
to the Holy Landbefore, at the age of30, she
divorced her husband and married the
18-year-old king of England. As Duchess of
Aquitaine and Queen of England she par¬
ticipated in the creation of the culture of
courtly love and bore four sons, two of
whom would become kings. While Eleanor’s
life was extraordinary, her personal experi¬
ences reflected the remarkable burst of
creativity and energy of the period between
1050 and 1150. It was a time of new ideas,
increasing prosperity, and fervent religiosity
which to some degree touched all the people
and institutions of Europe.

In the political arena, both the papacy and
the monarchies began to bring stability to
their respective domains. Political stability
allowed trade to flourish once again and all
classes to take advantage of increased agrar¬

ian prosperity. It also led to a revival of piety
among the ordinary people—inspiring them
to build new churches and undertake pil¬
grimages and crusades. Philosophy and
learning revived as scholars reinterpreted
ancient texts. The peace of the era forced the
rough manners of war to give way to the
polite behavior of the court, creating a new
impetus to write romances and love lyrics.

The founding of one new monastery had
particularly far-reaching consequences for
lay piety, architecture, learning, and the
papacy. It had become customary for kings
and lords to endow monasteries and nun¬
neries with sufficient land for their inhabitants’
livelihood and with laborers to support them
so that they could spend their lives in prayer.
Their motives were twofold. They wanted
the monks and nuns to pray for their souls so
that their afterlife would be spent in heaven
rather than hell. But they also saw these
establishments as offering an honorable ca¬
reer for the extra daughters and sons who
would not marry or could not be endowed
with lands.

Placing these superfluous noble children
in monastic institutions sometimes had good
results. Some became worthy abbots and

THE FLOWERING OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE • 71

The Order of Cluny was responsible
for great church reform, for an increase
in piety, and for a new style of archi¬
tecture known as the Romanesque.
The rounded arches on the windows
and the massive walls of the abbey
church at Cluny are typical of the
Romanesque style .

abbesses and occasionally even saints. But
often the children had no taste for monas¬
tic life and lived very corruptly. They
spent more time with their married broth¬
ers and sisters in their castles and, against
monastic rules, took lovers and concu¬
bines themselves.

To counteract the strong lay influence
on monasteries, the Duke of Aquitaine
founded a monastery at Cluny in 910. The
Cluniac monks used the Benedictine Rule
and were permitted to select their own
abbot rather than accepting the duke’s
choice. The abbot was answerable only to
the pope, not to the duke. The monastery
gradually gained respect and adherents.
Other monasteries reformed and declared
themselves Cluniacs. The movement in¬
spired Emperor Henry III of Germany,
who reformed the Church in Germany. He
then crossed the Alps to Rome, where
three men were claiming to be pope. He
deposed all of them and put in their place a
series of popes who also supported the
reform of the Church.

The new wave of piety inspired the laity
as well as the clergy. Because they no longer
feared that their churches would be de¬
stroyed in warfare, the laity began to
contribute some of their excess profits from
agriculture to building parish churches,
cathedrals, and new monastic houses. The
architecture of the churches they built was

derived from previous Roman models and
is therefore called Romanesque, Ro¬
manesque architecture incorporated
rounded arches and vaults, and ceilings or
roofs of masonry (including barrel vaults
and cross vaults). The buildings also tended
to be low, and required a massive amount
of masonry to hold up their stone ceilings.
Some churches had wooden ceilings that
allowed for height in the nave, which in
turn allowed more windows in the clere¬
story (the wall extending above the aisles to
the roof of the nave).

To counterbalance the massive appear¬
ance of the masonry and the absence of
large windows, the interiors of churches
were brightly painted with Biblical scenes,
including the lives of the saints, pictures of
heaven and hell, and other such paintings
that would instruct the congregation as
they attended services or visited the churches.
In the apse (a semi-circular room on the east
end of a church) was a very large picture,
often a mosaic, of Jesus giving the law to
Christians. The effects of the heavy ma¬
sonry were further lightened both inside
and out with carvings featuring biblical
scenes, saints, and Christian symbols. A
popular theme for the carvings over the
main entrance to large churches was the
symbols of the four gospel writers, Mat¬
thew, Mark, Luke, and John. This set of
carvings was called the tympanum, from
the Greek word for dmm.

Romanesque architecture could be found
throughout Europe, although it varied
from area to area. William the Conqueror

72 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

constructed several cathedrals in England.
Durham, one of the best examples of the
Norman style, is a massive structure capable
of inspiring worship but also of withstand¬
ing siege. Normans favored geometric
designs for their arches. French versions of
Romanesque architecture tended to have
more elaborate exterior and interior carv¬
ings, such as those that can be seen today at
Vezelay and Autun. The French also added
small chapels in the apse area for private
worship. In Sicily, elements of Moslem
architecture were added to the arches, mak¬
ing them appear less weighty.

As the laity contributed more to the
building of their parish churches and cathe¬
drals, they demanded more from their
clergy. They wanted the clergy to know the
liturgy (the rites used for public worship), to
be able to instruct them, and to remain
unmarried and lead exemplary lives. The
quality of the clergy did improve. In the
spirit of Cluny, the clergy wanted to re¬
move themselves from the control of the
ruling elite, so that they could regulate their
own ranks. Most important, of course, was
liberating the papacy from the control of
the emperors. Ever since Charlemagne’s
rule, the emperors had claimed the right to
reform the papacy when it became em¬
broiled in local fights. Henry III of Germany
was acting on the same tradition when he
set up a reform pope in Rome.

To gain its freedom, the papacy needed
to develop a way of electing its successors
without outside influence. The man cred¬
ited with working out the details of papal
election was a Cluniac monk named Hilde¬
brand, an Italian who had moved into the
Church hierarchy in Rome. He developed

Romanesque Cathedrals Show
Blew Bujjdjnn Techniques

asonry ceilings for
Romanesque
churches were
either barrel vaults or
cross vaults (groin vaults).
Barrel vaults looked like
half of a barrel or half of a
cylinder of masonry
perched on the support¬
ing masonry walls. Cross
vaults were composed of
two half barrel vaults in¬
tersecting at a right angle.
A series of these vaults
formed the ceiling. The
weight was concentrated
at the four comers of the

vault and the two groins.
Cross-vaults had the ad¬
vantage of adding some
height and allowing for
an arch that could pro¬
vide space for a clerestory
window, which let light
in at the ceiling. Cross
vaults were well suited
for the aisles of a church
because the wall of the
nave and the outside wall
could hold them up.
However, the bigger ex¬
panse of the nave needed
heavier, oblong vaults,
and the weight of their

heavy masonry required
large piers to hold up
each comer. Clerestory
windows were minimal in
the nave area. Sometimes
wedge-shaped buttresses
(supports) were used on
the exterior of churches
to hold up the masonry.
Romanesque churches
tended to be rather low
and dark because the
walls, piers, pillars, and,
sometimes, masonry but¬
tresses had to be very
thick in order to hold up
the ceiling.

Durham Cathedral is one of the most powerful examples of the Romanesque style. It
has a massive, austere quality that represented both the piety of the Cluniac reform
movement and the substantial conquest of the Normans in England.

THE FLOWERING OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE • 73

The struggle between Emperor Henry
VI and Pope Gregory VII showed
the tensions between the secular rulers
of European monarchies and the
power of the pope. In the famous fght
between Henry and Gregory, each
used his most powerful weapons. The
pope used his spiritual power to ex¬
communicate Henry in the first
round, but Henry appeared as a peni¬
tent and had it removed. Later Henry
used force of arms to set up an anti¬
pope, Guibertus, and expel Gregory
from Rome. Gregory again excom¬
municated Henry, but the pope died
soon afterwards in exile.

an electoral system called the College of
Cardinals. In his plan the pope was to be
elected by the most important clergy in
Rome, that is, by the bishops, priests, and
deacons of the churches in Rome and its
surrounding countryside. The plan was an
adaptation of the old custom of having the
priests attached to a bishopric (or district)
elect the new bishop. The College of Car¬
dinals, which still exists, was later enlarged
to represent all of the clergy by giving some
of the archbishops and important ecclesias¬
tical officials outside of Rome the tide of
Cardinal so that they could vote.
Hildebrand’s plan removed the emperor
entirely from the process of electing a new
pope. The first election went smoothly
because Henry III had died, and his son,
Henry IV (1056-1106), was only a boy and
too young to interfere.

In 1073 Hildebrand himselfbecame Pope
Gregory VII (1073-1085), but not through
an election by the College of Cardinals. He
was so popular in Rome that the clergy and
populace alike proclaimed him pope. Em¬
peror Henry IV went along with Hilde¬
brand’s elevation to the papacy because he
was trying to establish control over his
rebellious German nobles.

Contemporaries described Gregory as a
small man with a weak voice, but a strong
vision of what the papacy should be. He
claimed that the mission of the popes was to
be the voice of St. Peter on earth and argued
that, by the doctrine of the Petrine Succes¬
sion, the pope was accountable to St. Peter
and to God for the sins of humans. If an
emperor sinned, the pope had a duty to call
even him to account. In Gregory’s eyes,
Henry IV had become a sinner because he
continued to appoint bishops and abbots in
Germany and to invest them with the
symbols of their spiritual office—the bishop’s
crook (staff) and ring. Investiture by a
layman such as the emperor, as Gregory saw
it, was unacceptable. From the early days of
the church, monks customarily elected their
abbots and the clergy elected their bish¬
ops—a principle that Gregory had invoked
in creating his system for papal elections.

Henry IV had learned the hard realities
of politics as a young boy. His mother had
acted as regent, ruling in his stead while he
was too young to do so, but during this time
he became the virtual prisoner of the Bishop
of Cologne. After freeing himself from
these influences when he came of age, he
began an active campaign to form his own
power base. Realizing that he needed a
wealthy region under his control, he se-

74 * THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

lected Saxony, in part because it had silver
mines. By 1075 he was successful in his
campaign and feeling flush with impending
victory.

By the same year, however, Pope Gre¬
gory VII was also feeling powerful enough
to strike at the heart of lay investiture.
Although Gregory was adamandy opposed
to lay rulers selecting abbots and bishops, he
recognized that ecclesiastical authorities
might hold fiefs from a lay ruler, and he
would pemiit them to receive those from a
monarch, but he would not permit lay
rulers to appoint ecclesiastical officers or
invest them with the spiritual symbols of
that office. In 1075 Gregory wrote several
letters to Henry—calling him “beloved
son”—in which he praised the emperor for
not selling ecclesiastical offices and for up¬
holding the principle of unmarried clergy.
But he then attacked Henry for appointing
bishops.

In one letter his address moved beyond
a firm remonstrance: “Gregory, bishop,
servant of God's servants, to King Henry,
greeting and the apostolic benediction—
but with the understanding that he obeys
the Apostolic See as becomes a Christian
King.” He went on to stress his own spiri¬
tual power over Henry, “considering and
weighing carefully to how strict a judge we
must render an account of the stewardship
committed to us by St. Peter, prince of the
Apostles, we hesitated to send you the
apostolic benediction.” Gregory was angry
that Henry was appointing and investing
bishops in both Germany and Italy against
the papal edict and threatened him with
excommunication (expulsion from the
Church) if he continued to do so.

In 1076 Henry responded in a letter to
his bishops. He called Gregory “not pope
but false monk” and referred to Gregory's
own assumption of the papal throne as a
usurpation because he was neither appointed
by the king nor elected by the College of
Cardinals. The salutation of one of his
letters to Gregory reads, “Henry, King not
by usurpation, but by the pious ordination
of God.” Henry argued that he too had a
sacred trust from God because of his conse¬
cration during the coronation ceremony.
In his estimation, a monarch had a duty to
God to cleanse the Church of a false pope.
He rallied the bishops of Germany and
Italy, who were loyal to him, and with their
support closed his letter with the statement:
“I, Henry, King by the grace of God,
together with all our bishops, say unto you:
Descend! Descend!” He was asking that the
pope abdicate because of his false election.

Gregory realized that he could make no
headway with the bishops that Henry had
appointed in northern Italy and Germany,
so he appealed to the German lay lords.
They had resented Henry IV’s conquest of
Saxony, and distrusted his plans to curtail
their own independence. They were quite
willing to listen to Pope Gregory’s sugges¬
tion that they rebel against their feudal
overlord if he were excommunicated. Ex-
communication meant that a Christian was
not allowed to participate in Holy Com¬
munion, but its ramifications went far
beyond this religious ceremony. It also
dissolved all feudal bonds of loyalty and
forbade anyone from serving the excom¬
municated former member of the Church.
In other words, excommunication put the
offender outside of the community of be¬

lievers. If Henry were excommunicated,
the German nobles were released from all
feudal vows and could select anyone they
wanted as their ruler.

Gregory excommunicated Henry in
1076. The German nobles immediately
met and declared that, if Gregory did not
revoke the excommunication order within
one year, they would depose Henry.
Gregory’s triumph was shoit-lived, how¬
ever. Because Henry could find no loyal
supporters among his nobility, he made a
trip to Italy in January 1077 to waylay the
pope, who was on his way to a meeting
with the German nobility.

At Canossa in the Alps, Henry appeared
before the walls of the castle in which the
pope stayed, standing barefoot and clad in
the rough wool garments of a repentant
sinner. After the penitent king had stood in
the winter cold and snow for three days, the
pope finally relented. As he wrote to the
German nobility, Henry “ceased not with
many tears to beseech the apostolic help and
comfort until all who were present or who
had heard the story were so moved by pity
and compassion that they pleaded his cause
with prayers and tears. All marveled at our
unwonted severity, and some even cried
out that we were showing, not the serious¬
ness of apostolic authority, but rather the
cruelty of a savage tyrant.” As pope, Gre¬
gory could not refuse absolution to a sincere
penitent, so the excommunication order
was lifted.

Henry regrouped his power and in 1084
marched into Rome and selected a new
pope. Gregory died in exile in 1085, re¬
portedly exclaiming: “I have loved
righteousness and hated iniquity; therefore

THE FLOWERING OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE • 75

In Florence and other cities, the grain
supply was crucial for the survival of
the population, so the city regulated
it. When grain was scarce, the poor
and indigent who did not contribute
to the economy of the city were
evicted. When the city had abundant
grain, officials distributed it liberally
to the poor (right).

I die in exile.” But Henry did not triumph,
either. Papal reform was by now too strong
a movement for the emperors to control,
and future popes continued to pressure
Henry. While Henry was engaged in Italy,
the German nobles again rebelled and sup¬
ported Henry’s son against him. In 1122, at
the Concordat of Worms, the Church was
able to persuade his son, Henry V, to agree
that only the clergy could invest the bishops
with the symbols of their office and that the
emperor could not appoint bishops and
abbots. But the bestowing of fiefs remained
the right of a king or an emperor.

The papacy was not the only institution
that reestablished itself in the late 11th
century. The surplus of grain and the resto¬
ration of peace also allowed trade to flourish
once again. Both peasants and nobles had
surplus grain to sell and, therefore, money
to buy practical items such as plowshares as
well as luxury goods such as silks and
ribbons, and spices to make their bland
foods taste more interesting.

With the revival of trade and crafts,
towns became an important part of the
European landscape, just as they had been
during the Roman period. Lords were so
interested in attracting people to their towns
that they offered peasants freedom from
serfdom if they migrated. Other serfs took
advantage of town laws that promised free¬
dom to those who managed to live for a
year and a day in town without their former
masters claiming them. “Town air breathed
free” is how they put it at the time.

Towns flourished throughout Europe,
but none as much as those in Italy, where
Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Milan, and Florence
became major trading and industrial cen¬

ters. Milan was known for its fine armor and
its control of the overland trade with Ger¬
many. Venice, Pisa, and Genoa rivaled each
other for their overseas trade in the Medi¬
terranean and even across the Atlantic to
countries including France, England, and
the Low Countries. As townspeople pros¬
pered, they also sought freedom from kings
and bishops so they could govern them¬
selves and set their own rules of trade,
government, and citizenship. Towns came
to be governed by the merchants who dealt
in luxury items and bulk shipments. The
merchant class, in contrast to the nobility,
enjoyed wealth derived from trade as op¬
posed to land. Furthermore, the merchants
needed goods to trade overseas. This de¬
mand encouraged artisans to produce high-
quality cloth, art, and other products that
would be valuable in trade. Peasants, who
were also enjoying new prosperity because
crop yields were improving, wanted to
purchase better shoes, plows, tools, and
pottery. Town markets and trades flour¬
ished, and so did the artisans.

The growing population moved into
previously unsettled parts of Europe. As
village populations became too large for
their old sites, lords who held forests and
swamps urged their serfs to clear the trees
and drain the fens. To encourage them to
take on this extra work, the lords offered
serfs better terms and freedom from the
servile duties they perfonned in return for
their land on established manors. The new
settlements adopted place-names that are
still in use. Some of them were named for
nearby settlements; for example, Little
Horewood was a new settlement whose
population came from Great Horewood.

76 * THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

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Others had names that indicated a new
foundation, such as Newcastle or Villeneuve
(literally, New City in French).

During this period, Netherlander be¬
gan to settle the marshes bordering the
North Sea, establishing a system of dikes
and windmills to drain these areas. The
German emperors also conquered more
land in the Slavic east in an expansion called
the drang nach Osten (drive to the east). They
encouraged people in the heavily popu¬
lated areas of the Low Countries to move
east and settle along the Baltic Sea and in
Hungary and Bohemia. Just as in the United
States during the 18th and 19th centuries
the call to the adventurous was 4 ‘Go West,
Young Man,” in the 11th and 12th centu¬
ries, agents of German lords recruited serfs
to go east and settle the new lands, bringing

with them their technology ofplowing and
draining fens.

If the peasant population was expanding
both within the old territories and in newly
conquered lands, the nobility was growing
at an even faster pace. Noble mothers had
a better diet than peasant mothers and
produced children who were more likely to
survive the dangers of childhood. The siz¬
able family of a minor noble, Tancred de
Hauteville in Normandy, serves as a notable
example of the circumstances of this large
and aggressive group. He had 12 sons; five
by his first wife and seven by his second.
Because only one son could inherit the
small ancestral lands, the others set out to
seek their fortunes.

Three of the brothers—William
Iron-Arm, Humphrey, and Drogo—

THE FLOWERING OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE • 77

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The Reconquista in Spain was part
of the armed expansion of Europe in
the 11th and 12th centuries. The
knights who sought their fortunes tak¬
ing land from the Arabs and from
each other viewed their warfare as a
holy endeavor. A century after the
events f a Spanish king who was also
a crusader commissioned a book that
showed the blessing of the troops be¬
fore battle (top), the final victory of
the Christians (center and bottom
left), and a ceremony of thanksgiving
for victory before the Virgin and
Child (bottom right).

became warriors, sometimes acting as mer¬
cenaries and sometimes as bandits. During
their pilgrimage to Jerusalem, they discov¬
ered that Sicily and southern Italy were fine
places to practice their skills ofwarfare. The
Arabs and Greeks who were fighting in
these places were both willing to hire
mercenaries. Soon the remaining de
Hauteville brothers had joined their kin
and began carving out their own kingdoms
rather than fighting for local factions. The
half-brother of William, Robert Guiscard
(“the Fox” or “the Sly”), managed to
conquer southern Italy and receive papal

recognition as ruler of the territory. His
brother, Roger, captured Sicily and held it
with papal approval by 1072. The brothers
established a Norman kingdom in these
two areas similar to the organized state that
William the Conqueror had established in
England.

Other younger sons of the nobility sought
their fortunes in Spain by fighting against
the Moslems there and carving out princi¬
palities. This fight became known as the
Reconquista (reconquest) and was portrayed
in the epic poem El Cid . The poem’s hero
is based on a historical figure, Rodrigo
Diaz, a Castilian noble who is born in
about 1043. (His nickname, “el Cid,”
means “lord” in Arabic.) In the poem, Diaz
is a champion of the Christian faith. In
reality he was an opportunist who fought
both Christians and Moslems, plundering
both churches and mosques. By the early
12th century, Moslem control in Spain
started to crumble, and the kingdoms of
Aragon, Castile, and even Portugal began
to expand.

During this period, the Arab world be¬
gan experiencing reverses that would lead
to its decline. While the French and Norman
nobility were creating separate kingdoms in
Sicily and Spain where the Arabs had pre¬
viously ruled, the Seljuk Turks (a nomadic
tribe that had converted to Islam) were
making major conquests in the east. The
Turks conquered Baghdad and moved west,
where they defeated the Byzantine army
and acquired Anatolia (part of modern
Turkey), which they called the sultanate of
Roum (an adaptation of “Rome”). Jerusa¬
lem and other areas of the Christian and

78 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Jewish heritage came under the Turks’
control. Thus, when western Christians
began to make extended pilgrimages to the
Holy Land, they were greeted at inns and
shrines not by the tolerant Arabs, but by the
Turks, a group newly converted to Islam.
Pilgrimage thus became more difficult and
much more dangerous, and the native Greek
Christian population complained to the
pilgrims of persecution.

Relations between the Greek-speaking
church in Byzantium and the Latin-speaking
church in Rome also were strained. Al¬
though both parties believed that they were
part of the same Christian church, the
Roman Church, flexing its muscles during
the reform movement, sought to dominate
the patriarch of Constantinople. The “Great
Schism” of 1054 was the culmination of a
number of clashes over the centuries. Con¬
troversies had arisen over such issues as the
use of the Roman or Cyrillic alphabet
among the Slavs, the wording of the Nicene
Creed, the question of whether Christians
should use two fingers or three to cross
themselves, and the position of the pope in
Rome as the titular leader of Christianity.
These tensions led to a split between the
two branches of the Church.

The increasing strength and belliger¬
ence of the European nobility and the
papacy, together with the Turkish threat
to Constantinople, led to an explosive clash
of cultures called the Crusades. Literally,
the word crusade meant “pilgrimage,” but
the pilgrims were armed men from Europe
who sought to retake the area around
Jerusalem and any other rich territory that
they could conquer, including the Byzan¬

tine Empire. While the
ideal of crusading—
to make Jerusalem a
Christian city—lived on
for centuries, many cru¬
saders simply wanted to
gain territory.

A volatile combination of in¬
terests, ambitions, and religious feeling
gave rise to the first crusade. Pilgrims com¬
plained that they risked their lives going to
Jerusalem, and that the Greek Christians,
even though they were erring in their
ways, were in grave danger of being killed.
The merchants of Italian towns maintained
that they were being ill-treated in
Constantinople because of the schism and
that trading in the former Byzantine and
Arab territories had become increasingly
dangerous. The economy of the Italian
towns was suffering as a consequence. The
Byzantine Emperor, Alexius Comnenus,
wrote to the pope in consternation after a
defeat suffered by the Byzantine army and
asked that he send mercenaries, perhaps
some of those fierce and footloose Normans.

The liberation of Jerusalem from the
Turks became the goal of the Crusad¬
ers. A map of the city drawn at the
time of the Crusades showed the city
wall with its fwe gates. The three ma¬
jor religions, Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam, all had their sacred struc¬
tures in the city: the Temple of
Solomon, the Church of the Holy
Sepulcher, and the Dome of the
Rock.

In return for such help, the emperor hinted
that he would mend the schism by invest¬
ing Rome with greater power than that of
the patriarch of Constantinople.

The pope at the time, Urban II, held a
council of French clergy and nobility at
Clermont in 1095. There he preached a
sermon that was a stirring call to arms to
liberate the Holy Land. Addressing the
French laity, he flattered them by praising
their fame as warriors and called on them to
avenge the Christians in the east. He noted
that the Turks, followers of Muhammad,

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Pope Urban II met with the French
nobility at Cleremont in 1095 and
gave a stirring sermon calling upon his
audience to recapture the Holy Sepul¬
cherfrom the Turks , relieve the
Byzantine Empire from the threat of
annihilation, and enrich themselves
by conquering fiefs for themselves in
the biblical land of milk and honey.
He called upon them to undertake a
glorious holy war—which became the
First Crusade.

had killed Christians, destroyed churches,
and dismembered the Greek empire. The
Franks could liberate the Holy Sepulcher
(the tomb in which Jesus had been buried)
and aid the Greeks. The pope also alluded
to the overpopulation of France: “This
land which you inhabit, shut in on all sides
by the seas and surrounded by the mountain
peaks, is too narrow for your large popula¬
tion. 5 ’ He pointed out that instead of fighting
one another for land, they could go to the

Holy Land, the traditional land of milk and
honey, and carve out estates there. For
those who went, he promised remission of
their sins so that they would go to heaven,
for this was to be a glorious pilgrimage.

The audience responded enthusiastically,
crying out “Dieu le veut!” (“God wills it!”).
But Urban quickly realized that too much
enthusiasm would not raise an army but a
rabble. He cautioned that “we neither com¬
mand nor advise that the old or feeble, or
those incapable of bearing arms, undertake
this journey. Nor ought women to set out
at all without their husbands, or brothers, or
legal guardians. Let the rich aid the needy;
and according to their wealth let them take
with them experienced soldiers.” Clergy¬
men were not to go without the consent of
their bishops.

Urban had, indeed, anticipated the prob¬
lems that might arise. He and Emperor
Alexius Comnenus needed an army of
knights under the direction of a western
king or at least a duke. But the pope’s first
appeal inspired a mob of second sons, peas¬
ants, poor knights, and members of the
clergy. Persuading the nobility to join up
took more time. Finally, the Duke of
Normandy (Robert, son of William the
Conqueror); Count Raymond ofToulouse;
Bohemund, son of Robert Guiscard; and
several other French nobles agreed to go on
the crusade.

While the main army of nobles and
knights took time to organize themselves,
amass supplies, and negotiate with Italian
merchants for ships, the popular crusade set
off by foot across Europe. It was led by an
impoverished knight, Walter the Penni-

80 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

less, and a preacher, Peter the Hermit.
Their followers believed that the year 1100
would bring a second coming of Christ,
and they wanted to be in Jerusalem when
this happened. They also believed that the
walls of Jerusalem would come tumbling
down like those of Jericho, when they
marched around them and blew their horns.
Some people argued that they did not even
need to go to the Holy Land to fight
infidels; they could do just as well by
attacking Jews in Europe. The first po¬
groms—in which Jews were rounded up,
robbed, killed, and burned—occurred in
Cologne. Most of the popular crusade,
however, headed on through Hungary
and the Balkans. The crusaders also be¬
lieved that, as an army of God, the local
inhabitants should feed them. When this
charity was not forthcoming, they stole
food. When they finally arrived at
Constantinople, the emperor was so dis¬
gusted with them that he forced them to
camp outside the city. Even so, they com¬
mitted petty thefts and harassed the local
population. Finally, the emperor agreed to
ferry them over the Bosporus. There the
Turks attacked them, and most were killed.
Peter the Hermit, however, managed to
return to Constantinople.

In the meantime, the main body of
crusaders assembled in Constantinople.
Relations between Emperor Alexius and
the westerners were not cordial. A remark¬
able account of the Greek viewpoint was
written by Alexius’s daughter, Anna
Comnena. Anna claimed that the crusaders
could not be trusted: “There were among
the Latins such men as Bohemund and his

fellow counselors, who, eager to obtain the
Roman Empire for themselves, had been
looking with avarice upon it for a long
time.” Anna was right about Bohemund.
She described an incident in which her
father greeted Bohemund and invited him
to a feast. Knowing that Bohemund would
be suspicious of this, Anna’s father had his
cooks bring raw meat to his guest and told
Bohemund to have his own cooks prepare
it if he preferred. With a great gesture of
liberality, Bohemund divided up the cooked
food and gave it to his followers, but did not
take any for himself. The next day he asked
them if they were feeling well or if the meal
had been poisoned. They were all well.
Anna concluded: “Such a man was
Bohemund. Never, indeed, have I seen a
man so dishonest. In everything, in his
words as well as his deeds, he never chose
the right path.”

After numerous squabbles between the
crusaders and the Greeks, Alexius and the
leaders of the crusade reached an agreement.
Alexius would supply the cmsaders with the
provisions necessary for their warfare, and in
return the crusaders would deliver to him the
cities of Asia Minor, which the Byzantine
Empire had lost to the Turks. The emperor
would also continue to supply the crusaders
with food and drink. The first town the
cmsaders captured was Nicaea. Anna wrote
that they did not, however, turn over the city
as promised, but forced Alexius to pay for the
city once again.

The cmsaders’ real test came at the siege
of Antioch in 1098. Alexius stopped their
supplies just as they attacked the city. The
situation became desperate as food ran short

Medieval bestiaries described ani¬
mals, both real and fictional.
Sometimes the animals were charac¬
ters in fables written to teach the
readers moral lessons about covetous¬
ness and other sins. Other times the
descriptions are of animal behavior,
habitats, and origins of names.

THE FLOWERING OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE » 81

The refinements in court culture that
courtly love brought to Europe in¬
cluded round dancing.

that winter. Finally, in the spring, an Italian
fleet arrived with more supplies. According
to the accounts of a person who was there,
Bohemund suggested that whoever broke
the siege and entered the city would be
allowed to keep it. But the chronicler went
on to say that Bohemund had already made
contact with a Christian inside the city
walls, who let him climb up at night and
open the gates for the crusading army. The
crusaders were victorious, but the victory
was short-lived. The Turks soon recovered
and sent a large force against Antioch. Now
the crusaders were stuck between a castle in
the city center still held by Turks, and the
Turks outside the city walls. They were
reduced to eating rats. In desperation,
Bohemund suggested that they try to drive
off the Turks encamped outside the city
walls. The crusaders won this battle, and
Bohemund claimed the city for himself in
defiance of Alexius.

The other nobles accompanying
Bohemund were so angry with him that the
crusade nearly fell apart at that point. The
leaders resolved their differences, however,

The assault on Antioch was long and
brutal. The Turks held the city while
the crusaders tried to attack it from
the outside. The crusading army suf¬
fered from hunger and disease that
decimated their ranks and led to fights
among the leadership.

and continued on to Jerusalem. The Italian
cities sent fleets to supply food and siege
equipment. In the summer of 1099, the
crusaders took Jerusalem. It was a terrible
defeat. One eyewitness said there was so
much blood in the streets that it came up to
the knees of the horses.

The leaders of the crusade discussed
what to do with the territory. The petty
fighting and land-hunger that had charac¬
terized the conquests seemed inappropriate
in the holy city itself. So they selected
Godfrey of Lorraine, the only noble who
had not participated in the internal dissen¬
sions, to be the first king of Jerusalem.

The Latin conquests in the Near East
established the Latin Kingdom of Jerusa¬
lem, and several principalities were given as
rewards to the nobles who fought. The
whole experience of colonizing the region
also had an enormous impact on Europe.
Among the things that the crusaders re¬
turned home with were a better knowledge
of building stone castles and machines to
besiege them, a taste for more highly spiced
foods, an appreciation of the luxury of silk
and cotton garments, and a number of relics
of saints from the early days of Christianity.

Life in Europe, particularly for the no¬
bility and merchants, was becoming more
refined even without the influence of the
crusades. Contact with the Arab population
of Spain had taught them to appreciate
lyrical poetry as opposed to the heroic
poetry of the chansons degeste and the sagas.
Internal warfare decreased because younger
sons went to Spain to fight Arabs or joined
the crusades, and the resulting peace brought
about a remarkable change in the nobles'

82 • THE MIDDLE AfiES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

manners. The knights who went on the
crusades had been warriors, trained to fight
in battle. Those who remained in Europe,
however, imbibed a new culture of military
virtue called chivalry, from the French term
for a mounted warrior, the chevalier. Ac¬
cording to the code of chivalry, a knight
was to be courageous (sometimes to the
point of foolhardiness), loyal, trustworthy,
generous to a conquered foe, and eager to
defend the Christian faith. But chivalric
behavior was to be practiced only by nobles
and, for the most part, by males. The
12th-century refinements in living led to
additional requirements for knights’ behav¬
ior: Noblewomen became objects of respect
and elaborate courtesy; religious ceremo¬
nies surrounded the initiation of knights;
and tournaments, or ritualized combat and
warfare, became an entertainment.

Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine, estab¬
lished a court in which the new noble
values flourished. Her grandfather, Duke
William of Aquitaine, was a romantic figure
known both for his love affairs and for the
lyrical poetry he sang to his mistresses.
Eleanor became the Duchess of Aquitaine
upon her father’s death when she was a
teenager. The adviser to the French king,
Abbot Suger of the monastery of St. Denis
outside of Paris, had arranged a marriage,
with her father’s blessings, between Eleanor
and the young king of France, Louis VII
(1137-1180).

The marriage was not a happy one
because the two were so different. Eleanor
had come from a sophisticated, worldly
court in the south of France and disliked the
damp chill of Paris. Louis had been raised to

tom Comnena, Byzantine Princess and Historian

Anna Comnena, bom in
1081, was the firstborn
daughter of Emperor
Alexius and the oldest of
his 11 children. Because
of the long gap between
her birth and that of her
oldest brother, John, she
harbored the idea that
she would become em¬
press. In her book, the
Alexiad , she wrote that
her real troubles with
John began when she
was eight. She was to be
married to the rightful
heir to the throne, who
was then a boy of about
her age. She assumed that
together they would take
over from her father,
who had usurped the
throne. But the marriage
never took place, and she
was eventually married to

another man. Thereafter,
she blamed her brother,
John, for her failure to
become empress. With a
male heir, Alexius did
not need her for the
succession.

Anna received a fine
education that included
the study of literature,
medicine, astronomy, and
the mechanics of siege
equipment. She wrote in
the introduction of her
book: “I, Anna, daughter
of the Emperor Alexius
and the Empress Irene,
bom and bred in the
Purple [bom and raised as
a princess], not without
some acquaintance with
literature—having de¬
voted the most earnest
study to the Greek lan¬
guage, in fact, and being

not unpracticed in
Rhetoric and having read
thoroughly the treatises of
Aristotle and the dia¬
logues of Plato, and
having fortified my mind
with the Quadrivium of
sciences (these things
must be divulged, and it is
not selfradvertisement to
recall what Nature and
my own zeal for knowl¬
edge have given me, not
what God has appor¬
tioned to me from above
and what has been con¬
tributed by opportunity).”
She not only observed
firsthand the events of her
father’s reign, but also had
access to men who had
advised him and to other
writings, including those
of her husband who also
wrote history.

become a member of the clergy, perhaps
even abbot of St. Denis, and was more
clerical than knightly in temperament. He
was forced to take the throne on the death
of his elder brother.

The real difficulties between the couple
occurred during the Second Crusade.
Eleanor had given birth to two daughters
but no sons, so she accompanied her hus¬
band on the crusade in the hopes of
conceiving an heir to the French throne
along the way. Dressed as female warriors,
she and several other noble French ladies set
off in high spirits. As if this behavior did not

THE FLOWERING OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE ’ 83

Battling dragons (left) and fearsome
knights (right), the legendary knight
Lancelot fulfills his chivalric duties . In
the Middle Ages, romances about the
feats of the nobility were popular in
the courts, and the most popular sub¬
jects of all were the stories that related
to King Arthur, Queen Guinevere,
Lancelot, and the other knights of the
Round Table.

cause enough scandal, when the couple
arrived in Antioch Eleanor announced to
Louis that she would remain there with her
uncle, Raymond. Rumor abounded that
she and Raymond, a handsome man and
great warrior, were having an affair. She
was said to have commented of Louis, “I
thought to have married a king, but I
married a monk.” After their return to
France, she still had not produced a male
heir, and Louis agreed to solicit the pope for
an annulment of their marriage. The mar¬
riage was dissolved and she returned to
being Duchess of Aquitaine.

But as an heiress, Eleanor remained a very
desirable marriage partner. She was pursued
by Henry, Count of Anjou and Duke of
Normandy, who had met her in Paris when
he had come to pay homage to Louis VII. He
was only 18 and she was nearly 30, but
marrying her would make him the Duke of
Aquitaine. Furthermore, he was in line to
become the king of England. They were
wed barely eight weeks after the annulment
of Eleanor’s first marriage. It is hard to
imagine a bigger blow for Louis VII. Henry
was his greatest rival, and now his rebellious
vassal had combined his inheritance of

Normandy, Anjou, and England with that of
Eleanor. Together these counties and duch¬
ies were larger than the land that Louis
personally controlled in his kingdom. As a
further wound to Louis’s dignity, Eleanor
produced four sons by Henry. A mighty feud
arose between Henry and Louis.

Her marriage to Henry left Eleanor with
responsibilities for maintaining his interests
in the duchy of Aquitaine, but it also gave
her a considerable amount of free time.
Henry had political responsibilities in En¬
gland, Normandy, and Anjou, so Eleanor
was often alone in her own duchy. Her
court was one of the most cosmopolitan in
Europe. Her personal understanding of the
world included the learned philosophy of
Paris, the ways of Norman and English
nobility, the exotic culture of the East, and
the traditions of her grandfather, the poet.
Poets and nobles were attracted to her
brilliant court at Poitiers.

The combination of poets and young
courtiers with the time to pursue refine¬
ment produced new standards of polite
behavior around the court (courtoisie, or
courtesy), a new emphasis on the impor¬
tance of women as epitomized by courtly

84 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

love, and new lyrical poetry and tales of
romance that celebrated the changing rela¬
tions between men and women of the
noblility. Under the patronage of Eleanor
and her daughter, Marie (daughter of Louis
VII), rules of behavior in love were estab¬
lished. Men were instructed concerning in
how to address ladies and were punished in
a “court oflove” if they offended a woman.
Poets known as troubadours composed
lyrical poetry in celebration oftheir love for
women and wrote tales called romances, in
which the love of the hero and heroine
were tested by a number of separations and
adventures. Many of the romances retold
legends from the past about King Arthur,
Lancelot, Guinevere, and the knights of the
Round Table. Troubadours traveled widely
seeking patronage from various nobles, and
in this way the poetry, tales, and rules of
behavior of courtly love became fashion¬
able all over Europe.

Troubadours could be either professional
musicians or nobles. Bernard de Ventadour,
for example, was the son of a servant in a
castle. Viscount Ventadour was his patron,
but Bernard was very attracted to the vis¬
countess and addressed a number of his love
poems to her. When her husband became
jealous, Bernard sought the patronage of
Eleanor of Aquitaine. Other poets included
a noble man, Bertran de Bom, who wrote
with tenderness about his love of war. He
wrote of his enjoyment of the lusty spring
with the songbirds singing and of the sight of
the tented annies in the field. But what he
liked most was to hear the cries of battle and
the din of swords on armor and to see ‘ ‘ horses
mad, with rolling eye, who frenzied through
the battle fly.” The warrior, he wrote, thinks

“but of blood and butchery and yearns for
death or victory.”

Authors of romances included Marie de
France, an educated woman living in En¬
gland. She told the story of one of Arthurs
knights who had never known love. He
was out hunting one day and shot an arrow
at a white doe, but the arrow glanced back
and struck him in the thigh. The doe told
him that he would not be healed until he
won the love of a lady. He then took to the
sea, but his boat was shipwrecked on the
shore of a beautiful garden. There a lady,
who was imprisoned in a tower by her cmel
husband, found him and nursed him back
to health. But the husband discovered the
knight and sent him off again. After a long
separation, the husband was slain, the knight
and his lady love were reunited, and they
lived happily together. Having found love,
the knight’s leg healed.

The music for lyrical poetry differed
from church music. The plainchant, in
which all voices sang the same parts in
unison without instmmental accompani¬
ments, had been common in church services
since the time of Gregory the Great. But the
chansons degeste were sung to the accompa¬
niment of a harp, and the troubadours
played a stringed instrument with a bow—
probably in imitation of Arabic musicians.
Polyphonic compositions, which include
parts for different voices such as tenor and
bass, gradually became part of both reli¬
gious and court functions.

St. Bernard of Clairvaux, one of the
most influential figures of the day, contrib¬
uted hymns to the Virgin Mary to the music
and poetry of the period. Bernard was raised
with the traditional values of a nobleman,

Stringed instruments, perhaps adopted
from the Arabs , accompanied lyric
songs and played carols for round
dances. The fiddle was an oval instru¬
ment with three strings that was
played with a bow. The guitar was
also a popular instrument in court
music.

THE FLOWERING OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE • 85

Tournaments, or mock battles, became
both a way of keeping up fighting
skills and of entertaining the nobility.
They were an opportunity for rich dis¬
play of fashions, feasting, horses, and
armor as well as feats of fighting
prowess. Ladies attended, cheering on
theirfavorite knight. The fighting was
highly ritualized, with lists (wooden
barriers) to confine the fighting space.
Heralds made sure that the rules of
fighting were followed.

The worship of the Virgin Mary be¬
came very popular in the 12th century
as hymns and churches were dedicated
to Mary. Alary was shown as a gentle
mother with the infant Jesus on her
lap. People found it easier to direct
prayers to this motherly figure than to
the more distant God orJesus.

but had a conversion experience during an
outing with some of his companions and
joined a monastery at Citeaux, where he
entered the new Cistercian order. Although
they followed the Benedictine Rule,
Cistercians tended to be stricter in their
observance than the Cluniacs, and empha¬
sized manual labor. By the time ofBemard’s
death in 1153, the same year that Eleanor
established her court in Aquitaine, the
Cistercian order had spread throughout
Europe. It was Bernard who had persuaded
Louis VII to undertake the Second Cru¬
sade, and he had been an adviser to Louis
and Eleanor. But he could not prevent their
separation, and he grieved at the failure of
the crusade.

Bernard was a great leader in theology as
well as an inspiration for monks and mon-
archs. Among his major accomplishments
were the hymns to the Virgin Mary, which
greatly increased her popularity in the
Church at the time. More and more,
churches were dedicated to Mary, and
ordinary worshipers found that addressing
prayers to Mary was more comforting than
addressing them to Christ the lawgiver, as
he was depicted in the apses of cathedrals.
Mary became the subject of popular ven¬
eration and was often addressed in the same

terms of adoration as the noble ladies were
in love lyrics.

Noble men organized tournaments, or
war games, that were suitable to the new
court culture. Knights who did not go on
crusades or engage in combat for long
periods saw tournaments as an opportu¬
nity to exercise their skill with arms with
minimal potential for loss of life and limb.
Tournaments were organized by nobles
to celebrate the knighting of a son, the
marriage of a daughter, the coronation of
a king, the heroic entrance of a prince into
a city, or as part of yearly urban celebra¬
tions. In fact, any excuse was a good one
for these mock battles. If single com¬
bat was the order of the day, then lists
were set up in such a way that the com¬
batants could charge each other on
horseback with lances. If a mock battle, or
melee, was planned, then a field for two
opposing sides was laid out. Elevated seat¬
ing permitted spectators, including
women, to view the fights. In elaborate
contests, whole towns were turned into
fighting quarters, and the streets were
filled with sawdust or sand so that the
horses would not slip on the cobblestones.
The mock battles were fought from street
to street.

86 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Every noble had his own distinctive
coat of arms and registered it in a
book of heralds. Heraldry terminology
was an elaborate language of symbol¬
ism that included such terms as
chevrons (peaked stripes), rampant
lions (on their hind legs), fleur-de-lis
(lily flowers), and various bars drawn
left to right or right to left.

The tournaments not only permitted
the knights to display their fighting prow¬
ess, but also included a number of other
rituals that emphasized courtly behavior.
Observance of the rules of the game was
crucial. First, weapons and horses were
inspected. The participants then presented
a coat of arms declaring the origin of the
fighter to the assembled dignitaries and
ladies. (Anonymous fighters could display
false coats of arms. Sometimes kings used
these, because no one would knowingly
fight against his king in open combat for
fear of being charged with treason.) A
fighter might also wear some favor from his
lady, such as a scarf or sleeve, and fight in her
honor. Although the knight might have
wanted to gain the love of a lady, he could
win material rewards as well. Organizers
offered winners a piece of armor, a horse, or
the right to take the suit of armor and horse
of the knights they defeated.

This remarkable period also saw a revival
of learning in Europe. Boethius’s transla¬
tions of parts of Plato and Aristotle received
new attention in the schools that grew up
around the cathedrals. Students flocked
from all over Europe to listen to famous
teachers lecture. Lectures were given in
Latin, the common scholarly language, so
that students from all reaches could under¬
stand them. By far the most famous teacher
was Peter Abelard (1079-1142). He wrote
an autobiography, Historia Calamitatum or
The History of My Misfortunes, thus much is
known about his life. He was bom into a
knightly family in Brittany. He could have
inherited his father’s lands, but instead be¬
came fascinated by theological and
philosophical arguments, and traveled

THE FLOWERING OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE • 87

throughout France to listen to various teach¬
ers. Paris was the center for these debates, and
Abelard soon developed a reputation as the
most subtle of thinkers. He had a number of
students who paid fees to hear him lecture.
He became famous throughout Europe, but
especially in Paris. His book Sic et Non (Yes
and No) presented arguments for and against
a whole range of difficult questions, such as
whether faith can be supported by reason,
whether good angels and saints who enjoy
the sight of God know all things, and whether
God is a substance.

In relating the history of his misfortunes
in his autobiography, Abelard told of his
romance with Helo'ise. The uncle of this
very bright and beautiful young woman
was a high official at Notre Dame cathe¬
dral. Wanting to provide the best
instruction for his niece, he engaged
Abelard as her tutor. Abelard’s description
of their lessons recounted how they moved
from reading books to kissing each other.
The affair became more serious, and she
became pregnant. The couple was faced
with a dilemma. If they married, he would
not be able to pursue a career in the
Church, because the clergy had to remain
unmarried. Helo'ise, not wanting to ruin
his career, refused to marry him. But when
their son was born, they were secretly
wed. Not knowing that they had married,
her uncle was outraged when he learned of
the birth, and arranged for a group of thugs
to assault and castrate Abelard. Abelard
retired to a monastery and urged Helo'ise
to do the same.

Although Abelard continued to write
and lecture, some people, such as Bernard of

Clairvaux, believed that his thinking was
close to heretical. While living in the mon¬
astery, Abelard wrote his autobiography. It
was circulated widely, and Helo'ise read a
copy. She, like Abelard, had by now be¬
come the head of a religious community.
Reading the account of their love reopened
the old wounds. She wrote a letter to
Abelard in which she sympathized with his
misfortunes but reminded him that she too
had suffered. She did not think of their love
affair as a sin and recalled that he was a singer
of love songs in those days. Helo'ise wrote:
“But in the whole period of my life I have
ever feared to offend thee rather than God;
I seek to please thee rather than Him. Thy
command brought me, not the love of
God, to the habit of religion.” She felt like
a hypocrite for loving Abelard and becom¬
ing a nun only to please him. Abelard wrote
back as a father confessor rather than as a
former lover.

The remarkable flowering of the arts in
Europe had lasting effects, even into our
own time. Courtly love and chivalry be¬
came the basis for polite relations between
men and women and in society in general.
The crusades marked the first major expan¬
sion of Europe into Asia since the Roman
period and brought Europeans into contact
with new products and ideas. The spirit of
expansion and conquest never left people’s
imagination and led to the age of discovery
in the 16th century. The revitalized Church
and the intellectual developments of the
12th century came to further fruition in the
13th century as lay governments—of both
towns and monarchies—also began to pros¬
per as peace prevailed.

B 8 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

William Marshall, the Ideal Knight

W illiam Marshall was
a younger son of a
minor English
nobleman. He grew up
in a period of struggle for
the English throne. Dur¬
ing a siege, his father
offered him as a hostage
to King Stephen, as a
pledge that he would give
up his castle if he could
not find reinforcements.
When his father reneged
on the deal, King Stephen
determined to kill Will¬
iam, who was five or six at
the time. The king
marched him to a tree to
hang him, but was so
overcome with pity for
the boy that he stayed the
execution and kept him
with him for two months
during the siege.

When William was a
teenager, his father sent
him to Normandy to be
a squire and learn the use
of weapons. At the age of
21, William, according to
his biographer, “seemed
so well and straightly
made that if one judged
honestly, one would be
forced to say that he had
the best formed body in
the world.” He was
knighted in a simple
ceremony. His lord
buckled on his sword and
gave him a ceremonial
blow on the shoulders.
William participated in
his first battle soon after¬
ward, but during its
course he was pulled
from his horse and the
animal was killed. In the

celebrations that fol¬
lowed, the lords told
him that fighting was for
profit as well as for the
cause of the fight. He
should have tried to cap¬
ture an enemy soldier,
for whom the lords
could have demanded
a ransom.

Without a war horse,
William could not par¬
ticipate in tournaments.
Finally, his lord relented
and equipped him with a
horse. William became a
famous fighter on the
tournament circuit and
never forgot to make a
profit from his victories.
But he had his share of
defeats as well. During
one battle his horse was
killed under him, and he

had to fight with his back
to a hedge. An enemy
knight came up from be¬
hind and wounded him
in the leg. He was taken
prisoner and thrown on a
horse. He had nothing to
bind his wound with
until his captors made a
stop at a castle. There a
lady noticed his wound.
She gave him a loaf of
bread, the center of
which she had cut out
and stuffed with linen
bandages. Queen Eleanor
eventually agreed to pay
to set him free.

Between the ages of
25 and 40 William pur¬
sued a career as a knight-
errant, earning his living
by fighting. It was said
that fully armed he could

scale a siege ladder on the
underside, lifting himself
up the rungs with his
own strength. He be¬
came so famous for his
chivalry that Henry II
made him the instructor
of his heir. By this time
William’s brothers had
died, and he had inher¬
ited the family lands. He
married the heiress of an
English earl and thereby
gained more land, and a
title, the Earl of Pem¬
broke. William con¬
tinued to play a role in
both Nomian and En¬
glish politics. When John
I died in 1216, the En¬
glish barons appointed
him regent for John’s son
and successor, the young
King Henry III.

Many younger sons of nobles, such as William Marshall, earned their livings as knights-errant . For these men the best hope was to find a patron to
support them or an heiress to marry them.

THE FL0WERIN6 OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE • 89

Chapter 6

New Architecture, Ideas,
and Monastic Orders

In Pope Innocent Ill's dream, St.
Peter's church and papal palace are
about to collapse and fall on his bed
chamber, but the young St. Francis
holds up the building and saves the
pope, the church of St. Peter, and the
Church in a more general sense. In
many ways the picture is not an exag¬
geration. In 1200 the Church was in
trouble. Heretics offered attractive, al¬
ternative teachings about Christianity.
The laity was critical of the worldli¬
ness of the Church and its
involvement in politics. While Inno¬
cent worked to reform the Church, it
was St. Francis and his followers who
reached out to the laity.

W hile Eleanor of Aquitaine rep¬
resents the innovations and new
spirit of the revival of Europe
in the 12th century, no single
figure can personify the late 12th and early
13th centuries. Henry II, Eleanor’s young
second husband, was an energetic man who
established many of the laws and govern¬
ment systems in England that are still used
today. Among Eleanor and Henry’s chil¬
dren were two sons who also made a major
impact on historical events—Richard I (“the
Lion-Hearted”), who led the Third Cru¬
sade, and John I (“Lackland”), who signed
the Magna Carta.

But perhaps the man who presided over
the most far-reaching changes in Europe at
the time was Innocent III, who was only 37
when he was made pope. He had the vision
to see that the new ideas of Francis of Assisi,
founder of the Franciscans, and Dominic,
founder of the Dominicans, about mingling
among the laity might prove better than the
seclusion of the older monastic orders.

Enthusiasm for religious revival remained
strong among lay Christians, but they began
to voice their own concepts about religion,
which they gleaned from the teachings of

priests, stories of the lives of saints, and art in
the churches. The contact between mer¬
chants, pilgrims, crusaders, and scholars and
Byzantines, Turks, and Arabs also intro¬
duced new ideas about religion. The laity’s
religious views often were counter to those
of the Church, and the Franciscan and
Dominican orders offered to teach by ex¬
ample and by preaching where the true path
to salvation lay. But those who strayed far
from the Church’s view were few in num¬
ber and most lay people continued to support
the building of parish churches, cathedrals,
and monasteries.

An exciting new architectural style,
called “gothic” by modern art historians,
also revolutionized church building. Gothic
architecture takes us back to the days of
Eleanor of Aquitaine, Louis VII, Henry II,
and that shaper ofEuropean politics—Suger,
Abbot of St. Denis (d. 1151). He had been a
mentor to Louis, had helped to arrange his
marriage to Eleanor, and had governed
France in their stead during the Second Cru¬
sade. He was an energetic man, who found
time to patronize the development of a new
architectural style in order to glorify his
abbey church. His portrait, in which he is

NEW ARCHITECTURE, IDEAS, AND MONASTIC ORDERS • 91

Gothic Architecture

The front of Reims Cathedral in France, with its two rose
windows, shows the extensive use of glass in Gothic ar¬
chitecture. The exteriors of Gothic churches were ornately
carved with biblical figures to instruct the laity .

T he term “Gothic” is a
misnomer because the
style had nothing to
do with the Gothic tribes.
It was first applied to late
medieval architecture
during the Renaissance,
when all medieval artistic
production was looked
down on as barbaric. The
identifying characteristics
of Gothic style were “fly¬
ing” buttresses, pointed
arches, ribbed vaults, ex¬
panses of stained glass
windows, and a soaring
height. The Gothic build¬
ings were towering
frameworks of masonry
piers or columns and
arches that were sup¬
ported on the outside by
flying buttresses. Only if
all these elements were
perfectly balanced would
the structure be stable.
Unlike Romanesque
churches, in which the
walls supported the roof,
Gothic churches were
held up by the skeletal
structure. Their stone¬
work, therefore, could be
thinner and used as a
decorative element.
Gothic churches were
higher and lighter, and,
because of their taller
piers, had more space for
windows in the clerestory
as well as in other walls.

A great rose window of
stained glass dominated
the front wall of the

structures. All the win¬
dows had stone tracery
that supported the glass;
that of the rose window
gave the appearance of a
rose in its tracery. Filling
in the stone were pieces
of glass in bright colors set
in a framework of lead.
Figures of the saints,
apostles, biblical charac¬
ters, animals, and flowers

were painted on window
glass. Taken together, the
images on a church’s
windows often told a
story. The sculpture that
appeared-on both the
external and internal
portions of churches also
frequently represented
biblical stories, the four
Gospels, or the Last
Judgment.

shown in prayer, appears in a small comer
of one of the stained glass windows of his
church.

Romanesque churches were limited in
height and number of windows because
they required heavy masonry to support
their barrel and cross vaults. As a result, the
buildings were dark inside. Because candles
were too expensive to illuminate an entire
church, churches usually were quite dark
even during services. Gothic architecture
approached the building of large structures,
such as cathedrals, very differendy. Rather
than placing all the weight of the structure
on the walls, an external skeleton com¬
posed of buttresses supported the internal
building skeleton of columns and vaults.
The buttresses are described as “flying”
because an external column of masonry
supported arches that met the stress points
of the building itself. Because the skeletal
structure supported the building, the walls
could be pierced, allowing for portions of
the wall to be used for windows. The
change was revolutionary. Within 50 years
of the development of Abbot Suger’s new
style of architecture, cathedrals and large
churches all over Europe had abandoned
Romanesque architecture and adopted the
new, Gothic innovations.

Of course, some calamities resulted.
Sometimes the engineering was faulty and
the whole roof of a church caved in, as
happened to the church at Beauvais. Many
European cathedrals successfully melded
elements of the Romanesque and Gothic
styles, however.

Building a cathedral was a complex un¬
dertaking that often took centuries. Some
say that cathedrals are never really com-

92 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Castles served both as defensive struc¬
tures and as residences for the nobles,
their knights and men-at-arms, ser¬
vants, and guests. The castle had a
large keep in the center that could
withstand siege. Around it was the
bailey, which had stables and barns, a
kitchen, and workshops for craftsmen.
A portion of the bailey was a garden
containing medicinal herbs.

pleted, but are continually added to. The
bishop and his clergy financed the building
of a cathedral and hired an architect to
design it. Sometimes they could afford to
construct only part of the building, then the
project lapsed until more money could be
raised. Architects moved from one job to
another, often from England to France to
Gemiany and back again. Some became
famous throughout Europe. Architects
trained on the job and often integrated ideas
inspired by other cathedrals into their own
designs. Even so, an architect had to be able
to draw plans of his proposed buildings and
have a good knowledge of the principles of
mechanical engineering.

The sketchbook of Villard de Honne-
court, a French architect ofthe 13th century,
shows the way in which an architect devel¬
oped his ideas. De Honnecourt designed
the cathedral at Cambrai, but seems to have
observed the construction of the cathedrals
at Laon, Chartres, and Reims. In about
1250 the queen of Hungary commissioned
him to build churches in that country. His
notebook contained sketches of animals—
such as a parakeet, crawfish, and dragon¬
fly—but also drawings of the features of the
cathedrals he most admired. Inventions
depicted in the notebook included siege
equipment and a sawmill powered by wa¬
ter. Much of the book was dedicated to
engineering questions, such as estimating
the height of a tower from the ground,
constructing a vaulted roof in wood, and
finding the center of a given area. He
observed in the introduction that “in this
book may be found great help in learning
about the principles of masonry and of
construction by carpentry. You will also

find in it methods of portraiture and draw¬
ing, according to the requirements and
teachings of geometry.”

A cathedral architect was also the fore¬
man ofthe project and hired master masons,
carpenters, stonecutters, sculptors, and carv¬
ers. Preparation included acquiring timber
for a scaffolding, stone for building the walls
and the tracery of the windows and orna¬
mental designs, lime and sand for mortar,
metal for bells, and fine quality sand and
pigments for window glass. Master crafts¬
men designed and supervised each stage,
but the apprentices and less skilled crafts¬
men under their direction did most of the
work. The marks ofthe masons, stonecut¬
ters, and sculptors can be seen on the
building blocks of cathedrals. In addition,
the building of such a large structure re¬
quired a number of unskilled laborers to dig
the foundations, carry the stones, set up the
scaffolding, lift the timbers, and perform
other heavy labor.

The 12th and 13th centuries must have
been golden years for architects, masons,
carpenters, and even laborers. The devel¬
oping towns were building walls around
their perimeters, partly to protect them¬
selves, but also to indicate that they had
charters from the king that licensed them as
independent cities. Nobles and even mem¬
bers of the clergy were building city

dwellings in the major urban centers to be
their residences when they were in town on
official business. In the countryside, mon-
archs and nobles alike were building bigger
and better castles. Many of the ideas for
constructing better fortresses came from
those that the crusaders had found in the
Near East, such as Antioch.

Castles became far more complex than
the simple motte-and-bailey structures of
the 11th and early 12th centuries, although
many of the basic features remained the
same. The motte became a defensible tower
made of stone. The parts below the ground
served to stabilize a construction of ma¬
sonry with walls as thick as 15 feet. The
basement rooms were used as dungeons or
prisons. The first level above the ground
was used for storing barrels of wine, flour,
salted fish, and other provisions that were
needed to feed the castle garrison. Weap¬
ons might also be stored at this level, which
might include a guard room as well. On
the main level was the great hall—the
center of castle life. Everyone took their
meals in the hall, and many people slept on
its floor after the trestle tables had been put
away for the night. The lord of the castle
performed acts of governance in the great
hall, and all guests were entertained there.
The upper stories were reserved for the
lord and his family.

NEW ARCHITECTURE, IDEAS, AND MONASTIC ORDERS * 93

Recipe lor a Cure

srCj

14 !

pB *. ’ v '

1 1 A /

>, .v 'Mm

£f | a| jjpk

Herbal cures were common in the Middle Ages. Some could be grown at home, but oth¬
ers had to be purchased at an apothecary’s shop. Herbs from the vessels on the shelves
were mixed and ground in different proportions according to the patient's needs.

T he following recipe,
from a 15th-century
English manuscript,
gives instructions for ser¬
vants to follow to cure
their lord of illness.

A medicinal bath:
“Boil together holly¬
hock, mallow, wall-
pellitory and brown fen¬
nel, danewort, St. John’s

wort, centaury, ribwort
and camomile, heyhove,
heyriff, herb-bennet,
bresewort, smallage, wa¬
ter speedwell, scabious,
bugloss, and wild flax
which is good for
aches—boil withy leaves
and green oats together
with them and throw
them hot into a vessel

and put your
lord over it and let him
endure for a while as hot
as he can, being covered
over and closed on every
side; and whatever dis¬
ease, grievance or pain
ye be vexed with, this
medicine shall surely
make you whole, as
men say.”

Life was fairly comfortable in castles.
Drinking water came from wells. Water for
washing came from a cistern, or retaining
tank, on the roof that collected rain, and
pipes provided a flow of water through
spigots to washbasins, called lavatories, in
the living quarters and the great hall. La¬
trines in the castles might feed into chutes
within the walls, or they might be outside
the keep (central tower and living quarters)
and drop directly to the ground or into the
moat. The problems with latrines were re¬

corded with some vividness by one English
king when he implored the engineers, “for
the love of God,” to fix the latrines, since
the cold updrafts and their odor in a castle
that he frequently visited were intolerable.

The bailey area of the new stone castles
was also more sophisticated. The bailey
was defended by a gate that would serve as
a first line of defense during an attack. The
walls were punctuated with towers, and
protected pathways ran around the walls
so that the garrison could move around the
castle to defend it. Within the bailey walls,
the buildings were arranged for times of
both war and peace. There were stables for
animals and workshops for repairing ar¬
mor and shoeing horses. The kitchen was
often located in the bailey as well, to keep
the heat generated during food prepara¬
tion outside the main hall, particularly
during the summer. In addition, there was
room for storage barns for hay and straw.
The gardens were the preserve of the lady
of the castle, who grew herbs used to treat
the various ailments and wounds that the
garrison might suffer. Women generally
were responsible for preparing herbal medi¬
cines and healing foods for the ill in their
households.

Castles were, of course, primarily meant
to be defensive structures rather than pleas¬
ant residences, so they were constructed to
withstand a siege. Walls were thick, and the
external windows were narrow, permitting
arrows to be shot out but not in. A castle had
to be well stocked with food, wine and
beer, weapons and armor, firewood, tim¬
ber, and other necessities. One of the most
essential elements, however, was a source
of water. Although water could be piped

94 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

into a castle from outside its walls, relying
on such a system was too dangerous. Be¬
siegers could block the supply, and the
castle’s defendants would be “parched
out”—that is, they would be threatened
with dying of thirst. A castle, therefore, was
best situated if it had a well within its walls.
If a castle was built on a hill of rock, as many
were in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem,
the wells would be very deep.

Although castles were built as defensive
structures, few experienced sieges. The
most effective way to lay siege was to
surround a castle and cut off its water and
food supplies. This maneuver would even¬
tually starve or parch out the defenders.
With exposure to the more sophisticated
siege strategies used during the Crusades,
however, the use of various siege machines
became more common. The weak point of
a castle was the bailey gate, and a battering

ram could be used to break it down. To
scale walls, ladders and even wooden tow¬
ers that could be rolled up the castle walls
were popular. Finally, more accurate weap¬
ons, such as the trebuchet, were developed.
A trebuchet was a type of catapult that
could hurl stones repeatedly at one place in
a castle wall and thus weaken it.

Perhaps one of the most effective siege
tactics was to undermine or sap the castle
walls. This process was similar to putting a
mineshaft under the walls. A description of
the attack of Kingjohn I of England on his
barons, who had seized Rochester castle,
gives a vivid account of the sapping pro¬
cess. Kingjohn hired miners to sink a shaft
under the wall and build supports of dry
wood. He then called for a dozen hogs that
were too fat to be eaten. These he had
killed and their lard rendered. The lard was
spread over the wooden supports in the

NEW ARCHITECTURE, IDEAS, AND MONASTIC ORDERS • 95

The Krak des Chevaliers in Syria
was built for defense against Turkish
attack on the Latin kingdom of
Jerusalem. The walls were extremely
thick and a well was dug down
through the rock so that the castle
would have an internal water sup¬
ply. The castle held out against
attack until 1268.

shaft and set ablaze. The wall tumbled down
as the supports burned.

Most castles were living quarters for noble
families and their households. Children who
grew up in cashes were not necessarily raised
by their parents in their early years, because
their parents might be away at other castles,
on crusade, or at the king’s court. These
children had nurses who fed and entertained
them. But their lives were not lonely, be¬
cause there were many adults in the castle as
well as other children to play with. They
rode horses, climbed around the battle¬
ments, went out into the countryside, and
received some early instruction from a cler¬
gyman hired to teach them their letters.
Parents customarily sent both boys and girls
to another noble family of higher status
when they reached the age of seven or eight.
This practice was called fostering. There
they learned the correct court manners from
the lord and lady of the household. Both
boys and girls learned to ride and hunt, to
wash their hands before coming to the table,
to eat properly with their fingers (they had

no forks), and to share their trencher (a piece
of rough bread that served as a plate) with
their dinner partner. Glasses were also shared,
and the proper young courtier learned to
wipe the glass after drinking so that the rim
would be clean for his or her dinner partner.
Dogs were not fed at the table for fear that
they would fight over the bones. Young
boys might also become pages (perhaps late
Latin or German for “child”) and serve their
lord and lady and their guests at the table.

As children grew up, boys and girls were
trained to take on different roles. Young
women learned to sew and embroider.
They spent most of their time with the
other women of the household in the
women’s quarters. Here they might also
learn to read romances and lyric poetry,
play musical instruments and cards, and
dance. Young men, on the other hand,
became squires and learned to fight. They
had to practice using a sword and lance
while riding on a horse. Some young squires
even accompanied their lords to batdes or
on crusades. The knighting ceremony, usu¬
ally held when a man reached 21, ended his
tenure as a squire.

Marriage was important for those noble
children who would inherit their father’s or
mother’s property. Usually, the older chil¬
dren in the family would marry, and the
younger children might find careers in the
administration of the Church or in monas¬
teries. Parents or often a lord arranged the
marriages. The Church taught that girls of
12 and boys of 14 were old enough to be
married, but the age of marriage varied
greatly depending on the couple’s social
class and the circumstances at the time.
Among the nobility, girls were often mar-

96 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

ried at a young age because the marriages
could create alliances of political or eco¬
nomic importance. They might have been
heiresses with valuable land, or given in
marriage to a former enemy of their father
as a symbol of peace between two families.
Their marriage partners could be as young
as they were or as old as their fathers. A large
age disparity between husband and wife
was not uncommon.

Major negotiations took place between
the families of the bride and groom. The
bride’s family provided a dowry that might
include land, but could also be wealth in the
form of jewels, serving vessels of gold and
silver, war horses, armor, or fine clothing.
Princess Philippa, the fiancee of the young
man who became Edward III of England,
was given a dowry of a fleet of boats and
fighting men so that the groom’s mother
could invade England in his name.

The husband’s family promised a dower
(a benefit that a wife could collect on her
husband’s death) composed of a third of his
lands and estates. She would have the use of
this land for as long as she lived, then it
would be inherited by the children of the
marriage. Widows living on their dower
lands were called dowagers. Practices var¬
ied from region to region. In Italy the
dower disappeared, but in other areas both
the dower and the dowry remained impor¬
tant parts of contracts for arranged marriages.

The marriages might be happy or at least
acceptable to the married couples, or they
could be miserable. Women were expected
to produce children to carry on the family
name, but their husbands might be away
much of the time. One of the reasons that
courtly love flourished was that ritualized

flirtations helped to pass the time and ease
the loneliness of a loveless marriage. Castles
always had a number of young fighting men
around to sing, compose songs, and partici¬
pate in tournaments for the entertainment
of the women and girls who lived there.

The elaborate castles of the Middle Ages
were also centers of government. From
them, lords administered their estates, and
kings administered their kingdoms.

In the 12th and 13th centuries through¬
out Europe, monarchs consolidated their
power. To trace the development of the
monarchies, it is necessary to go back a
century to the time of Henry IPs grand¬
father, Henry I (reigned 1100—1135). When
William the Conqueror died in 1087, he
had three sons—Robert, William, and
Henry. Robert received Normandy, Will¬
iam got England, and young Henry was
given a cash setdement. Henry was ambi¬
tious, and when William died from an
aiTow wound during a hunt, rumors spread
that Henry was responsible. But Henry
became king of England and, after Robert
died, Duke of Normandy as well. In France
the Capetians continued to rule from Paris.
They tried to gain recognition from their
wayward counts and dukes, among whom
Henry I of England was the most trouble¬
some. Henry controlled not only Normandy,
but also Brittany and some of the territory
along the Seine River. He consolidated his
power in England, then began to extend his
authority throughout the realm.

Henry I had misfortunes as well as suc¬
cesses. His two sons died crossing the English
Channel, so as he approached death as an
old man who had ruled for 35 years, his only
heir was a daughter, Matilda. He took the

Siege weapons included the catapult,
which was used to throw large stones,
boiling oil, and other objects in besieg¬
ing a castle. The catapult was cranked
down with a winch which, when re¬
leased, caused the arm to rise swiftly
and throw the object at or over a wall.

NEW ARCHITECTURE, IDEAS, AND MONASTIC ORDERS • 97

Thomas Becket (on horse at right) re¬
fused to agree to the demands of
Henry II that members of the clergy
be tried for any crimes in the king's
court. When Henry enlisted the help
of Louis VII (both at left), Becket
went into exile to enlist the help of
the pope.

best measures he could to assure his succes¬
sion. Henry married her to his worst
enemy—Geoffrey Plantagenet, the Count
of Anjou—in the hope that this maneuver
would protect her inheritance of Normandy
and Brittany. He then persuaded the En¬
glish and Norman vassals to accept her as
queen. Before he died he had the satisfac¬
tion of knowing that she had a son who was
named Henry.

But the barons of England refused to
accept Matilda as their queen, pardy be¬
cause she was a woman and partly because
she married the Count of Anjou, who was
their enemy as well. They selected a grand¬
son of William the Conqueror, Stephen of
Blois, to become king. Civil war raged, and
Matilda sometimes took to the saddle her¬
self to lead her army against Stephen.
Eventually a compromise was reached, and
Henry II, son of Matilda and Geoffrey and
grandson of Henry I, became king. His
kingship marked the beginning of what is
known as the Plantagenet dynasty. The

name derives from a type of heather flower
that Geoffrey customarily wore. Henry
Plantagenet, of course, added the Duchy of
Aquitaine to his fiefs in France by marrying
Eleanor in 1152, after her marriage to Louis
VII of France was annulled. Historians have
called this vast territory, which included
half of France, the Angevin Empire.

Henry II set about reorganizing England
so that he would be free to defend his fiefs
in France. Since William the Conqueror,
all the kings of England had regarded the
realm as a convenient source of revenue,
but not as a fit place for a French-speaking
Norman to live. So Henry II followed his
grandfather’s example in making England’s
judicial system work very smoothly and for
his own financial gain. He encouraged the
lesser barons and freemen to purchase writs
from the crown. Writs were legal instru¬
ments that allowed the free population to
have the king’s officials and judges try their
cases. Henry not only made a profit on
providing uniform legal standards to the
English, but also won support for the idea
that the king’s law should prevail through¬
out the land.

When a dispute arose over who had the
better claim to a piece of land, a writ
empowered the king’s judges to call a jury
(from the Latin term jurati, or men serving
on oath to tell the truth) of the best in¬
formed people from the surrounding
country. The judges called on the oldest
and wisest members of the community to
serve on an inquest jury, and asked them to
determine who had the best claim to the
property. On the basis of their testimony
and verdict (from the Latin word veredictum,
or true statement), the judges settled land

98 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

disputes, with the authority of the king
backing up their decision. The system was
very popular and in time England used
juries to decide criminal matters as well.

For Henry the benefits were peace and
increased profits. To keep track of the
revenues that he received from England, he
reinvigorated the Exchequer established by
Henry I, which is still the chief cabinet
office in charge of finances today. The
Exchequer takes its name from a large
tablecloth on which the accounts of the
realm were calculated. On it was a series of
columns, which were crossed by horizontal
lines. The tablecloth was simply a large
abacus that permitted calculation of sums
owed without using cumbersome Roman
numerals. The word “exchequer’’ derived
from the Arabic word for the game of chess
or checkers. The Exchequer usually met in
Westminster (the royal palace located just
west of London), and all county officials
and royaljustices rendered their accounts at
this central location. All debtors, even if
they were officials, were imprisoned until
they paid the amount due to the king.

Henry was an energetic man. In fact, his
courtiers complained that he exhausted
them because he constantly administered,
fought in tournaments and battles, hunted,
and pursued his enemies with ruthlessness.
Even during church services he had to have
writing materials with him, or he would
fidget. He was a redhead with a freckled
face and a muscular physique. A fiery tem¬
perament accompanied his generally ruddy
appearance. None felt the quick anger more
than Thomas Becket, who became Arch¬
bishop of Canterbury. Becket, a London
merchant’s son, had served Henry as Chan¬

cellor of the Exchequer. When the Arch¬
bishop of Canterbury died, Henry thought
he could reward a loyal servant and have a
subservient archbishop by appointing
Becket.

But Becket seemed to have undergone a
conversion when he was elevated to the
archbishopric. He took the side of the
Church against his old friend, Henry. The
focus of their fight was the relations be¬
tween the church courts and the royal
courts. Henry wanted clergy who had com¬
mitted crimes tried in the powerful royal
courts, and Becket wanted them tried by
their bishop. If the clerks were tried in royal
courts, they would be hanged if convicted,
but if they were found guilty in the bishop’s
court, they would only have to say prayers
or go on a pilgrimage to atone for their
wrongdoing. Henry exiled Becket, but the

The Exchequer, or treasury, took its
name from the checkered table cloth, a
type of abacus on which they tallied
the fines they had collected for the
king . Officials presented their accounts
and the money that was due. The
Chancellor of the Exchequer and his
clerks kept a record of the accounts
and imprisoned those who did not
pay the full amount.

NEW ARCHITECTURE, IDEAS, AND MONASTIC ORDERS • 99

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The martyrdom of Thomas Becket at
the altar of his cathedral in Canter¬
bury made him a saint almost
immediately . His fame spread rapidly
and illustrations of his martyrdom ap¬
peared quickly in England and as far
away as Spain.

move was so unpopular with both the pope
and the laity that Henry had to reinstate
him. When Becket came back to Canter¬
bury and resumed the old fights, Henry
allegedly remarked to four of his knights,
“Will no one rid me of this troublesome
priest?” His courtiers were all too willing.

They went to Canterbury and killed the
archbishop as he was praying before an
altar. Immediately, Becket became a martyr
and saint. Henry was forced to confess that
his short-tempered remark had led to the
death of his archbishop, and was beaten to
atone for his role in the death. The tomb of
St. Thomas became the most popular place
of pilgrimage in England, and figures in
Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, written two
centuries later.

Most of Henry’s energy went into
protecting his continental possessions from
the French kings who kept up continual
warfare and intrigues against him. Louis
VII was an obvious enemy even before
Henry married his ex-wife, but when Louis
died, his son, Philip II Augustus, became a
formidable foe. Philip even succeeded in
getting Henry’s heir, Henry “the Young
King,” and Eleanor to conspire against
Henry. Henry then imprisoned Eleanor in
a rather comfortable English castle, where
she was separated from the court culture
that she had created and the pleasantries of
life in her own Aquitanian duchy. Young
Henry died before his father, so Richard,
Eleanor’s favorite son, inherited all of the
Angevin territory in France and the king-
ship of England.

Before his brother died, Richard was
destined to become the Duke of Aquitaine
and to follow in the footsteps of his
great-grandfather: duke, fighter, trouba¬
dour, and chivalric figure. Richard carried
out at least some of the roles. He sang and
played musical instruments, but most of all,
he was an ideal Christian knight who em¬
braced the Third Crusade with zeal. The
pope persuaded his archenemy, Philip II

100 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Augustus of France, to crusade with him.
Also entering into the scheme was Frederick
I Barbarossa, emperor of Germany.
Frederick had gained this name because of
his large, red beard.

The Third Crusade took careful plan¬
ning. Richard was the only enthusiastic
participant, but Philip and Frederick joined
because the Church and laity were con¬
cerned that the Turks had unified under
their great leader, Saladin, and threatened
to take over the entire Holy Land once
again. Richard, imbued with the romances
of his mother’s court, flung himself whole¬
heartedly into the campaign. Indeed, his
name became Richard the Lion-Hearted,
or Coeur de Lion to his French-speaking
subjects. According to myth, he fought
single-handedly against Saladin. Whether
or not this is true, he did in fact achieve
major victories and succeeded in reaching a
compromise with the Turkish leader, who
agreed to give the Christians the port city of
Acre and a corridor through which pilgrims
could pass to worship in Jerusalem.

Frederick I Barbarossa never reached the
Holy Land because he died while taking a
swim. Philip II, on the other hand, hated
fighting, disliked cooperating with the
chivalric Richard, and decided to return to
France to take advantage of Richard’s ab¬
sence by attacking his fiefs. On the way
home from the Holy Land, Frederick’s
heir, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI,
took Richard pnsoner and held him for
ransom. While England and the Angevin
territories in France scrambled to pay the
ransom, Philip waged war against Richard’s
French fiefs. When Richard was released,
he conducted campaigns against Philip, but

died at Chateau Gaillard from an infection
resulting from an arrow wound.

Philip II Augustus was not as loved by his
subjects as Richard had been in England
and in his French possessions, yet he was a
very successful monarch. Unlike his father,
Louis VII, he was an intelligent politician.
He expanded his kingdom north into
Flanders through marriage and bided his
time until he could challenge the English
king. The opportunity came under Rich¬
ard the Lion-Hearted’s successor, his brother
John. The youngest son of Henry II and
Eleanor, John I had not been in line for the
succession, and became king only because
his older brothers had died without sons.
John was groomed for a more comfortable
life than defending his territories against a
calculating enemy such as Philip. John
made a fatal blunder in marrying a young
woman, Isabelle of Angoleme, who was
engaged to one of King Philip’s vassals.
Invoking a feudal lord’s right to protect his
vassals’ interests, Philip invaded Normandy,
Anjou, and Poitou (the northern part of the
Angevin Empire) to punish John. He met
with little resistance. John earned the name
“Lackland” because of his loss of territory.

The capture of Richard I in Germany
was related to German political ambitions.
Frederick Barbarossa (1152—1190) came to
the throne with grand plans to restore the
influence of the Holy Roman Empire by
gaining power either in Germany itself or in
Italy and Burgundy. But to consolidate
power in Germany would involve pro¬
tracted fights with relatives and other
German nobles. Frederick acquired the
duchy of Burgundy by marrying its heiress,
but Italy was a more difficult problem.

Frederick I Barbarossa got his name
from his red beard. His dream to re¬
store power to the Holy Roman
Empire would naturally interest his
sons (depicted here giving their father
advice), one of whom would inherit
the throne.

NEW ARCHITECTURE, IDEAS, AND MONASTIC ORDERS • 101

At the coronation of John I, two arch¬
bishops anoint him with holy oil and
place the crown on his head. Medieval
kings claimed that this ceremony,
based on the crowning of David in the
Bible, gave them sacred powers that
permitted them to challenge the eccle¬
siastical officials. The Church,
however, disagreed.

Italian towns had entered a period of great
prosperity, but they had also become inde¬
pendent of lay and church authority.
Frederick either had to overwhelm the
towns of northern Italy or win them to his
side. Finally, only Milan withstood his
siege. At the end of three years, when the
irate Frederick finally captured it, he threat¬
ened to destroy Milan entirely and salt the
earth so that nothing would grow there. He
relented to his regret, because Milan soon
led a coalition of cities, called the Lombard
League, against him. Frederick was de¬

feated at the battle of Legnano in 1176.
Facing ultimate defeat in Italy and rebellion
among his dukes in Germany, Frederick
had no choice but to retreat to Germany
and try to base his empire there.

Although Frederick I died in 1190 dur¬
ing the Third Crusade, his plans to unite
Italy with Germany looked as if they could
be realized through marriage rather than
war. Frederick’s able but ruthless son, Henry
VI, detained Richard the Lion-Hearted
simply because he needed a ready source of
cash to unite his empire. Richard happened
to be taking the land route home from
crusading and was a convenient target.
Henry pursued his fathers Italian policy by
marrying the heiress to the kingdoms of
Naples and Sicily. Before he died at the
young age of 32, his wife produced a son,
Frederick II, who became one of the most
remarkable figures in medieval history.

The Holy Roman Emperors’ Italian
ambitions were countered by popes, who
remained strong advocates of papal inde¬
pendence. The Church continued building
its political power in the 12th and early
13th centuries. Gregory VII and his suc¬
cessors had put the papacy in a good
position to take control of its own bishops
and abbots. Popes exercised greater power
over the appointment of the bishops and
kept in contact with their appointees. In
this way, they directed both the spiritual
and financial interests of the Church
throughout Europe.

In Rome itself, they established a central
bureaucracy to handle their far-flung inter¬
ests. In addition to the College of Cardinals,
the popes developed special bureaus that
dealt with papal finances; a judicial branch

102 * THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

that specialized in appeals to the pope for
divorces, annulments of marriages, and other
matters of spiritual guidance; and a chan¬
cery that handled diplomatic issues. The
bureaucrats of the papal government also
developed special ways of writing and spe¬
cial seals so that the directives and letters that
came out of their offices could not be easily
counterfeited. Papal bulls, as the official
directives were called, had nothing to do
with the male bovine, but rather took their
name from the lead seal or bulla (a knob)
that was attached to the documents to
authenticate them.

The most notable pope of the late 12th
and early 13th centuries was Innocent III.
He represented a new type of clergyman.
Innocent had studied theology at the Uni¬
versity of Paris and church law at the
University of Bologna. His legal training
was very helpful to the Church, which was
expanding its bureaucracy throughout Eu¬
rope and entering into political fights with
the European monarchs. After becoming
pope at the comparatively young age of 37,
he had the energy and intelligence to ac¬
complish much during his papacy
(1198-1216).

Among Innocent Ill’s political goals was
to ensure that the German emperor re¬
spected the pope’s authority and left Rome
in peace. He feared that an aggressive Holy
Roman emperor could take control of the
papacy because Henry Vi’s marriage gave
the family domination over Germany to
the north and Naples to the south. Citing
the coronation of Charlemagne as em¬
peror, Innocent claimed that as pope he had
the authority to intervene in the election of
the German emperor. He thought that

Frederick, Henry Vi’s young son, would
bend to his guidance. By 1209, Frederick II
was old enough to be made emperor, and
Innocent extracted three promises from
him: He would follow the spiritual direc¬
tion of the pope; he would lead a crusade;
and he would abdicate as king ofNaples and
Sicily and sever that territory from the Holy
Roman Empire once he had gained control
over his German possessions.

In England, Innocent played a more
proactive role. John I hadhis own candidate
for the position of Archbishop of Canter¬
bury, but Innocent insisted on the
appointment of Stephen Langton. Inno¬
cent excommunicated John and even
threatened to encourage Philip II Augustus
to invade England. John engaged in a series
of unsuccessful campaigns to regain
Normandy that proved very costly. In or¬
der to raise money for his batdes, he forced

The Holy Roman Btipfre

he imperial title of
the Carolingians was
abandoned in 924,
but was revived in 962 by
the emperor of Germany,
Otto the Great. His realm
is known to historians as
the Holy Roman Empire.
Despite its name, the
Holy Roman Empire
had little in common
with the Roman Empire.
In fact, it was geographi¬
cally located, for the most
part, in an area that had
included no Roman
settlement.

As a political unit, the
Holy Roman Empire sur¬
vived until 1806. Its unity
relied on the wealth and
personality of the emperor
rather than on common
institutions or even com¬
mon languages, since Slavs,
Hungarians, Bohemians,
and Italians were all part of
the empire. Its governance
was weak compared with
that of England and
France, and its inhabitants
developed no sense of a
collective identity. If the
emperor was strong and

aggressive, the empire
played a prominent role in
European politics, but if
the emperor was involved
in internal civil wars, it
was not a great power.

The German nobility con¬
tinued to claim the right
to elect the emperor, and
they were often inclined
to elect the weakest candi¬
date that they could find
from the royal family.
Nonetheless, some notable
figures held the tide, in¬
cluding Frederick I and his
grandson, Frederick II.

NEW ARCHITECTURE, IDEAS, AND MONASTIC ORDERS • 103

Frederick II, king of Sicily and emperor
of Germany, was a threat to the power
of Rome and the Papacy. He holds an
orb, a symbol of the globe and the
emperor's control over it.

the English nobility and townspeople to
pay more taxes than they had ever paid
before. When they refused, he used extor¬
tion. He insisted on turning a profit on
every feudal right that he had over the
nobility. For instance, he sold the right to
marry noble widows. The right to marry
went to the man who would pay the most
money for the privilege of using the widow’s
dower (one-third of her former husband’s
property). For a fee, he also allowed guard¬
ians of noble orphans to keep an orphan’s
property beyond his or her 21st birthday,
the age of legal maturity. But faced with the
possibility of revolt and invasion from the
French king, John agreed to become
Innocent’s vassal.

In 1214 John and one of the German
princes, who was a contender for the title of
emperor, joined forces against Philip II
Augustus at the battle of Bouvines. Philip
won once again, and John returned to
England in disgrace. The English nobility
was no longer willing to accept his govern¬
ment and, under the leadership of
Archbishop Stephen Langton, the nobles,
townsmen, and knights banded together
and defeated John at the battle of
Runnymede in 1215. They then drew up
a series of demands that have become known
as the Magna Carta, and they insisted that
John sign the document.

The Magna Carta (literally, the “great
charter”) derived its name from the large
piece of parchment on which it was written
rather than from its historical significance.
Most clauses of the Magna Carta dealt with
John’s abuses of his power over the nobility
and of his feudal rights as king. It held, for
instance, that the king could levy taxes if

they were customary, but extra taxes re¬
quired the consent of the kingdom. It also
addressed abuses involving the remarriage
of widows and the property of heirs and
heiresses.

Although some nobles disliked the judi¬
cial reforms the Magna Carta embodied,
they were very popular among the towns¬
people, lesser nobles, and knights. One of
the clauses, for example, read that “all free
men shall be tried by a jury of their peers.”
This provision ensured the continuance of
the jury system. In a larger historical frame¬
work, the Magna Carta is seen as the
beginning of the constitutional monarchy
in England because it preserved the jury and
stated that the king could not be above the
laws of the land, but rather must abide by
them. Various monarchs fought against this
type ofconstitutional monarchy, but politi¬
cal events in the 13th and 14th centuries
only made the principle more binding.

Pope Innocent defended his vassal against
the English nobility, claiming that John had
signed the Magna Carta under duress and
therefore should not be bound by it. When
he died a few years later from consuming
too many fresh peaches with cider, John left
a nine-year-old son, Henry 111(1216—1272),
as king. Because Henry was too young to
rule, the nobility selected nobleman Wil¬
liam Marshall to act as regent and formed a
council that would rule according to the
Magna Carta.

Pope Innocent, meanwhile, called a
council of bishops and leading church fig¬
ures to the Lateran Palace in Rome in 1215
to address reforms of church practices.
Among the matters affecting the laity of
Europe was the role of clergy in determin-

104 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

ing the guilt or innocence of those accused
of crimes. Until the Lateran Council, the
accused were subjected to ordeals by fire or
water or trials of combat. In an ordeal by
fire, the person on trial would walk through
a fire or carry a hot iron object. In an ordeal
by water, he or she was thrown into a body
of water. Before the trial began, a priest
blessed the fire or water and asked God to
allow the innocent to go unscathed. If the
person was innocent, he or she would not
be burned by the fire or would sink in the
water. The guilty would float, having been
rejected by the blessed water. In trial by
battle, the innocent man would win and the
guilty man would lose, whatever the natu¬
ral advantages of either fighter.

Pope Innocent and his advisers believed
that the presence of priests gave credence to
these superstitious procedures. Furthermore,
the ordeals did not prove very much. In a
well-known example from the First Cru¬
sade when the army was besieged in Antioch,
a man was told in a dream that if he dug in

a certain place in a church, he would find
the lance that had pierced Jesus’ side. Not
convinced that his dream was true, he told
no one. But when he had the same dream
three times, he consulted a priest. Together
they dug as directed and found a lance.
Many crusaders were skeptical about this
“miracle,” but their leaders were
hard-pressed and decided to use the lance as
a rallying symbol. Carrying it before them,
they led a successful attack on the Turkish
army outside the city walls. But the skeptics
and the believers both wanted proof. The
man who found it was to undergo the
ordeal by fire. A hot bed of coals was
prepared, and the lance was wrapped in
cloth. The finder walked across the coals
carrying the lance. Surely, the spectators
reasoned, Jesus would protect the man if it
was the true lance. But even when the poor
man died, the sides were not reconciled.
The skeptics believed that he died from his
bums. But the believers argued that al¬
though he had made it across the coals safely

The Magna Carta is named for the
size of the parchment it is written
on rather than for its importance in
constitutional history. Although
considered the fundamental docu¬
ment of constitutionalism in the
English-speaking world, it is really
a reiteration of feudal rights and le¬
gal procedures that the barons forced
John I to confirm.

The Inquisition: Notorious Secret Inquiries

§5

B

i

V~_-- ■

The Inquisition proceeded in secrecy until it had either gotten a repentance from the per¬
son it was investigating or sufficient evidence to condemn the suspect.

T raditionally bishops
had been charged
with the spiritual cor¬
rection of the laity,
including dealing with
heresy. In the 1230s, the
papacy replaced the bish¬
ops with tribunals of
judges. These tribunals,
known as the Inquisition,
were made up of well-
educated churchmen who
had taken religious vows
(often in the Dominican
order). They were given

sweeping powers to ques¬
tion suspected heretics
and witnesses. The Inqui¬
sition, which did not
allow suspects to confront
witnesses or obtain legal
counsel, accepted the tes¬
timony of two witnesses
as sufficient evidence for
conviction. The inquisi¬
tors often used torture as
a way of extracting a con¬
fession. Their goal was to
save the souls of those
who had been led astray

by heresy. Therefore
they sought confessions,
so that they could bring
heretics back into the
fold of the Church
where the salvation of
their souls could be as¬
sured. Those who
confessed were given
penances or prison terms.
Only when heretics re¬
fused to recant their
beliefs were they burned
at the stake or otherwise
executed.

enough, the mobs had been so rough in
their jubilation that he had died as they
flocked around him to touch the true lance.

The Lateran council called for the exclu¬
sion of priests from ordeals and judicial
combats. This policy forced monarchs to
change the way they established guilt or
innocence in criminal cases. No one was
satisfied with ordeal, because the horror of
it simply forced the accused and the accus¬
ers to reach an agreement. England had a
tradition of using juries to settle land dis¬
putes and to decide if there was adequate
evidence in a case to indict a person for a
crime. Indictment meant that the known
evidence strongly suggested that the person
might be guilty and that he should therefore
be tried in the king’s court. The indictment
jury eventually was named the grand (large)
jury. To replace ordeals and combat, En¬
gland created another jury, the petty {petit
or small) jury, which rendered the verdict at
the conclusion of a trial.

On the continent, a different model was
selected. Instead of a jury, a board of magis¬
trates or judges questioned the accusers and
then, separately, questioned the accused.
The two sides did not confront each other,
which prevented the possibility of intimida¬
tion on either side. Thejustices then rendered
a decision. Guilt in either system resulted in
punishment by hanging. Fortunately, both
systems were lenient, and only about a
quarter of the accused were hanged.

The Church itself was having problems
with a large minority of laity who held
beliefs contrary to those of the official
doctrine. In the urban centers of southern
Europe, the population began to question
the growing power of the clergy and the

106 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

wealth of the Church. Several heresies
disturbed Innocent and the Church, but the
most alarming were the beliefs of the Cathari
(the pure), also known as the Albigensians,
a name derived from the town of Albi in
southern France around which their move¬
ment was centered.

The Albigensians offered a coherent,
distorted, and appealing alternative to the
theology of the Church. Their theology
might have had its origins in the Zoroas-
trian dualistic religion of Persia. Both
recognized two gods: a god of good who
represented the spirit and a god of evil who
represented the world of matter or material
life. Because the Old Testament contained
the story of the creation of the material
world, in their view it portrayed the god of
evil. The New Testament, they believed,
portrayed the god of good, for it dealt with
salvation, souls, and resurrection. Because
spirit was better than flesh, the Albigensians
urged abstinence from worldly living, ani¬
mal meat, and sex. In fact, only a few
Albigensians, th eperfecti or the perfect ones,
were able to follow this severe regime.
When Albigensians died, they requested
one of the perfecti to be at their bedside to
speed salvation.

By the beginning of the 13th century
the Albigensians were attracting a large
following, and Innocent III became
alarmed. With no immediate weapon to
combat them, he preached that a crusade
should be undertaken against them in 1208.
He promised the successful leader of the
crusade the right to take over the
Albigensians 5 property in southern France.
The crusade was brutal, but not until 1229
was the heresy under control. Many

Albigensians were killed, and some re¬
turned to Christianity, but a determined
group of believers practiced their religion
secretly. To root out these secret groups of
Albigensians, the Church resorted to the
Inquisition, a tribunal for the discovery and
punishment of heretics.

The Albigensian Crusade was not the
first that Innocent had launched. In 1202 he
persuaded some European noblemen to
undertake the Fourth Crusade to liberate
the Holy Land from the Turks. The crusad¬
ers contracted with the Venetians to take
them there by boat, but when they were
unable to pay, the Venetians suggested that,
as part of their payment, they could recap¬
ture a trading port that had been claimed by
the Hungarian king. When Innocent learned
of this attack on a Christian king, he ex¬
communicated the crusaders. Undaunted,
they decided to proceed to Constantinople,
where in 1204 they attacked and looted
the capital and drove out the emperor.
Their domination of the city lasted only 50
years, but those who participated in the
crusade returned to Europe with immense
wealth in gold and gems, as well as many
religious relics.

Church councils and crusades were not
the most effective way to confront and
counter dissent. Instead, new religious or¬
ders sprang up to provide the laity with
spiritual and intellectual guidance. Dominic
(1170-1221), a Spaniard by birth, received
an excellent education in the Hebrew/
Arabic/Christian environment ofhis native
country. In his mid-30s he traveled to
Rome, where he met Innocent III. Inno¬
cent, worried about the Albigensian crisis,
asked him to preach against the heretics in

Relics of saints, including their
bones and clothing, played an im¬
portant part in religious worship
during the Middle Ages. People felt
that saints could intervene to help
cure them of diseases or ease other
distress. The relics were housed in
rich reliquaries and became part of a
church's treasury. Pieces of the cross
on which Jesus was executed, con¬
tained in this reliquary, were
especially important.

NEW ARCHITECTURE, IDEAS, AND MONASTIC ORDERS • 107

Francis of flssisrs "Song ol Brother Sun"

Francis of Assisi is frequently pictured preaching to birds. Also gathered around
is a friendly lion and a member of the women’s order founded by Clare, a fol¬
lower of Francis .

M uch of St. Francis’s poetry praised nature as an ex¬
ample of God’s greatness. St. Francis is frequently
represented as preaching to animals.

Praise be to you, my Lord, for all your creatures,

Above all Brother Sun

Who brings us the day, and lends us his light;

Beautiful is he, radiant with great splendor.

And speaks to us of you, O most high.

Praise to you, my Lord, for Sister Moon and for the stars;
In heaven you have set them, clear and precious and fair.
Praise to you, my Lord, for Brother Wind,

For air and clouds, for calm and all weather
By which you support life in all your creatures.

Praise to you , my Lord, for Sister Water
Which is so helpful and humble, precious and pure.

Praise to you, my Lord, for Brother Fire,

By whom you light up the night;

and fair is he, and joyous, and mighty, and strong.

Praise to you, my Lord, for our sister, Mother Earth,
Who sustains and directs us.

And brings forth varied fruits, and plants,
and flowers bright.

southern France. Although Dominic
brought to this calling a considerable repu¬
tation as a preacher and as a priest who led
a humble, devout life, initially he won few
converts. Realizing that he could make
little impact alone, he organized volunteers
to help him create an order whose mission
would be to preach to heretics and unbe¬
lievers throughout the known world. Pope
Innocent recognized the order in 1216. It
was called the Order of the Friar Preachers,
but it is still known also as the Dominicans.

Rather than retreating to monasteries as
previous monastic orders had done, the
Dominicans moved about in the world.
They were an educated order who could
preach to inquiring new urban dwellers,
argue with heretics, and provide teachers
for the new universities. They could also
staff the Inquisition. Rather than living off
the proceeds of manors that were given to
monasteries, as other orders did, the Do¬
minicans made their living by soliciting
donations from the pious laity to support

their preaching. With their learning and
their example of living in the poverty
associated with Jesus’ apostles, the Domini¬
cans made converts among the Albigensians.
Later they became missionaries in central
Asia and even China.

A contemporary of Dominic, Francis of
Assisi (1182-1226), earned the love and
captured the imagination of the people of
his time. As a young man he led the carefree
life of a wealthy young Italian. His father
was a cloth merchant in Assisi, in central
Italy. Young Francis was not interested in
business, being more inclined to imitate
courtly manners and spend his time in
revelry. In his early 20s he underwent a
series of experiences that led to a profound
religious conversion. The first incident oc¬
curred after a banquet that he had given for
friends. The revelers moved into the street—
singing and waving torches and flowers.
Francis, however, separated from them and
was later found in a religious trance. Con¬
tinuing his religious commitment, he went

on pilgrimage to Rome, where he led a life
of poverty. He exchanged clothing with a
beggar and spent his days asking for alms.
After returning to Assisi he continued to
dress as a beggar and began giving away the
family money. His father disinherited him
to stop this erratic behavior. The action
may have saved the family fortune, but
Francis withdrew to the outskirts of Assisi,
where he lived with the poor and minis¬
tered to the sick. He adopted a mission he
had heard described in a sermon: “Cure the
sick, raise the dead, cleanse the lepers, drive
out devils. Carry neither gold not silver nor
money in your belts or bag, nor two coats,
nor sandals, nor staff, for the workman is
worthy of his hire.” So Francis took on
these symbols of poverty and began preach¬
ing, even though he was a layman.

When Francis had about a dozen fol¬
lowers, he urged them to go to Rome and
ask permission to preach with the pope’s
blessing. It was farsighted of Innocent to
grant this request. He must have seen this

108 * THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

completely pious young man as a valuable
counter to the perfecti of the Albigensians.
Even before Dominic had established his
mendicant or begging order, Francis had
organized his followers according to this
model. As much as possible, they strove to
imitate the life of Christ: They dressed as
peasants, tended to the wants and ills of the
urban poor, and preached to the unedu¬
cated with stories derived from folktales
already familiar to their audiences.

Their very name, “Friars Minor,” or
“little brothers,” indicated the cheerful
humility that they preached as an ideal all
over Europe. Some of Francis’ old life as a
troubadour reappeared in his hymns, which
praised God through his creatures and his
creation. Francis is associated with preach¬
ing the word of God even to animals. His
order drew a vast following, including many
women. Although it was acceptable for
men to go begging, the Church certainly
did not want women from respectable
families to beg. Therefore, an enclosed
female order was established by Francis’s
friend and follower, Clare. The Poor Clares
worked among the poor.

But even the horde of men who fol¬
lowed the rule of Francis was too large to be
supported by begging alone. They had to
be organized into monastic institutions, and
eventually they and the Dominicans came
to resemble the older orders. Nonetheless,
their monastic houses tended to be located
in urban areas rather than in isolated regions
like those of the Benedictines and the
Cistercians.

The 12th and early 13th century was a
period of enormous excitement. There was
something to engage everyone’s interest:

campaigns, batdes, revolts, high-stake poli¬
tics between kings and popes, heresies, and
new religious orders. Universities were
being established at the same time that
Francis and Dominic were preaching, and
radical new intellectual debates caused as
much chaos in the universities as the
Albigensians did among the nobles and
peasants of southern France. The English
nobles continued their attempts to control
their kings, resulting in the development of
Parliament. Even the crusading ideal did
not die. The great crusader and king of
France, St. Louis, graced the 13th century
with his presence. The next chapter will
look at this exciting era from another per¬
spective—that of the peasants. Faced with
war, political troubles, and taxes, were they
as thrilled as the nobles during this exuber¬
ant period?

Innocent III, flanked by two cardinals
with their characteristic flat hats, rec¬
ognizes the order of Francis of Assisi.
His followers are shown with the tra¬
ditional tonsure of monks and the
simple garments of the order, includ¬
ing a rope belt holding together the
brown robes.

NEW ARCHITECTURE, IDEAS, AND MONASTIC ORDERS • 109

Chapter 7

Communities and
Theip Members

Louis IX, or St. Louis (top right),
was known for his pious life and his
crusading. His mother, Blanche of
Castile (top left), became regent for
her son when he was abroad on cru¬
sades. The author dictating to the
scribe (at bottom) indicates the intel¬
lectual excitement that characterized
13th century Paris.

D uring the Middle Ages, local com¬
munities were important to people’s
sense ofbelonging. Ifpeasants were
asked to identify themselves, they
would not say that they were English, French,
German, or Italian. They would say that
they were the son or daughter of a certain
man or woman. If pressed, they would
explain that they were from a particular
village. In international markets, a merchant
from London, Florence, Milan, or Leipzig
would identify himself by his town. People
cared a great deal about the community
from which they came. If pressed further
they would identify themselves as Chris¬
tians, but the idea of having a national
identity such as English, French, German, or
Italian would leave them perplexed. They
might identify their king or emperor and
agree they owed allegiance to that person,
but being part of a nation had little meaning
for them.

In the 13th and early 14th centuries,
people organized their communities with
rules and regulations that determined who
belonged to the group and who was ex¬
cluded from it. Rules of behavior and
membership requirements regulated trade

and production of goods, education of
scholars, government by councils and as¬
semblies (either with or without the king’s
approval), and establishment of everyday
order in peasant communities. These groups
went by different names, but they had
much in common. Universitas was a Latin
name that translated into “guild” in En¬
glish. (It is also the root of the modern word
“university.”) In the Middle Ages, it ap¬
plied to students and masters who organized
into groups that regulated classes and ex¬
aminations as well as to guilds that organized
craftsmen and merchants, setting the stan¬
dards for the quality of products that
members produced and rules for permit¬
ting others to join the group as apprentices.
Peasant communities developed mecha¬
nisms that regulated peacekeeping within
villages. The representative units that ad¬
vised the monarchs of Europe went by the
generic name of council, but they were
called Estates in France, Parliament in En¬
gland, Cortes in Spain, and diets in Germany.
They might consist of only nobles and
higher clergy, but increasingly they in¬
cluded representatives from the urban
populations and successful country gentle-

COMMUNITIES AND THEIR MEMBERS • 111

Bollapdic Poems by Students

University students learned their lessons by listening to a passage from the text and then
taking notes on the lecture.

A goliard was a glutton, but the name was applied to medieval students and a
style of satiric poetry they wrote in both Latin and the vernacular. Some were
love lyrics, others were drinking songs, and still others concerned nature. The poem
below is a begging song, in which the student could insert the name of the patron to
whom he was making his appeal in the last verse.

I, a wandering scholar lad.

Bom for toil and sadness,
Oftentimes am driven by poverty
to madness.

Literature and knowledge I
Fain would still be earning,

Were it not that want of pelf
Makes me cease from learning.
These tom cloths that cover me
Are too thin and rotten;

Oft I have to suffer cold.

By the warmth forgotten.

Scarce I can attend at church,

Sing God’s praises duly;

Mass and vespers both I miss
Though I love them truly.

Oh, though pride of [Normandy],
By thy worth I pray thee,

Give the suppliant help in need;
Heaven will sure repay thee.

men who had made their name as admin¬
istrators of the king’s justice.

The development ofcollective units was
not sudden: All of them had their roots in
a variety of institutions of earlier centuries.
Universities, for instance, can be traced
back to the days of Charlemagne, who felt
so strongly about the need to educate clergy
that he ordered his bishops to establish

schools at their cathedrals. Scholarship re¬
mained centered at cathedrals, but by the
early 12th century, scholars and professors
had begun to move from place to place,
giving lectures and charging students per
lecture. Lectures were delivered in Latin,
the universal language of the educated.
(The name of the area in which students
congregated on the left bank of the Seine in

Paris is still known as the Latin Quarter.) By
the early 13th century, universities were
moving toward more formal structures as
masters and students placed higher value on
the knowledge and skills necessary to qualify
for a degree. New careers in state and church
bureaucracies and in business had opened
for those with a university education.

Europe developed two major models
for universities: the student-run profes¬
sional schools such as the University of
Bologna, and the master-dominated uni¬
versities such as the one in Paris. By the
12th century Bologna was sufficiently fa¬
mous for the study of law that Thomas
Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury
who opposed Henry II, and the future
Pope Innocent III went there for their
legal training. Such students had clear
career goals and wanted to ensure that the
university prepared them for their chosen
profession. They had already received in¬
struction in Latin, reasoning, and
mathematics but needed specific training
in either canon or civil law—that is, in
the law of the Church or in Roman law.
Students of canon law studied the works of
Gratian, a compilation of papal pronounce¬
ments . This law was very important because
tradition made St. Peter and his successors
(the popes) the keepers of the keys to
heaven. Whatever laws they issued on
earth, according to the Doctrine ofPetrine
Succession, would also be binding in
heaven. Students of Roman law studied
the CodexJustinianus and the Digest, which
had been prepared by Justinian’s jurists
centuries earlier. Because much had
changed in both canon and civil law since
these works had been written, the lectures

112 ' THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

consisted of explanations (glosses) and up¬
dating of the texts.

In Bologna the students formed a univer-
sitas or guild that set the standards to which
professors were to adhere. To this end, the
students determined the length of time that
professors must lecture and the amount of
text they were to cover in each course of
lectures, and demanded that courses meet a
set number of hours during the term and
that professors not leave town without their
consent. In defense, the masters formed
their own guild to regulate their status
within the university. They set the require¬
ments for the exams that qualified a person
to become a master and teacher in his
subjects, established fees for their lectures,
regulated standards for degrees, and pre¬
scribed the dress and hoods that would
distinguish them from the students.

At the University of Paris the masters’
guild dominated the students. Most of the
students at Paris were working for their
bachelor of arts degrees (baccalaureates) and
were very young, usually between 13 and
18. Without experience in organizing their
lives for themselves, they got drunk, ate
irregularly, and neglected their studies while
pursuing the proverbial wine, women, and
song. They also fought with the towns¬
people over a number of issues, including
high rents, unpaid bills for food and drink,
crimes and property damage caused by
student rowdmess, and the hostilities of
townspeople who felt imposed on by the
rowdy young men. A series of riots finally
forced the masters to take responsibility for
their young students.

As was usual in university towns, includ¬
ing Bologna, students were both a blessing

and a curse. Towns enjoyed profits from
renting them rooms and providing them
with food and drink; on the other hand, the
students were disorderly. From the stu¬
dents’ point of view, the townspeople
charged too much for their provisions and
brutalized them with threats of criminal
action. Whereas the sober student guilds of
Bologna negotiated such disputes by the

Lady Philosophy appears to
Boethius in a dream in this 15th-
century edition of Boethius’s
Consolation of Philosophy.
Adorning Lady Philosophy’s
gown are the seven liberal arts that
formed the core curriculum for the
bachelor of arts degree: arithmetic,
music, geometry, astronomy,
grammar, rhetoric, and logic.

COMMUNITIES ANO THEIR MEMBERS • 113

The Lecture Method of Odofredus

dofredus, a law pro¬
fessor in Bologna,
outlined his lecture
method when he an¬
nounced his plan to give
a series of lectures on the
Old Digest of Justinian:
“For it is my purpose to
teach you faithfully and
in a kindly manner, in
which instruction the
following order has cus¬

tomarily been observed
by the ancient and mod¬
ern doctors and partic¬
ularly by my master....
First, I shall give you the
summaries of each title
before I come to the
text. Second, I shall put
forth well and distincdy
and in the best terms I
can purport of each law.
Third, I shall read the

text [including all the
glosses done before my
time] in order to correct
it. Fourth, I shall briefly
restate the meaning.
Fifth, I shall solve con¬
flicts, adding general
matters and subtle and
useful distinctions and
questions with solutions,
so far as divine Provi¬
dence shall assist me.”

The medieval method of teaching was for the professor and students to read a text to¬
gether. The professor then explained the meaning of the text.

very real threat of simply moving the uni¬
versity out of town, the young, hotheaded
Parisian students had violent clashes with
the legal establishment in that city.

After a particularly serious riot in 1200,
in which some people were killed, the
masters took control and threatened to
leave the city entirely unless the king of¬
fered redress. The king acted immediately.
He granted a charter to the university, in
which he allowed the students and masters
to be tried in ecclesiastical courts rather than

in the courts of the city of Paris. All students
became members of the clergy when they
entered the university and were, therefore,
eligible for prosecution in ecclesiastical
courts. These courts tended to be some¬
what more lenient: the punishments they
meted out were penances (prayers, fasts, or
pilgrimages) rather than hanging.

The masters were in rebellion against the
bishop of Paris over their own organization
and the curriculum. In 1215 Pope Innocent
III, himself a graduate of the University of
Paris, confirmed the academic freedom of
the Parisian masters. His statutes established
that a master of arts must be at least 21 years
of age and have completed six years of
academic work. Masters were to wear dark
gowns reaching to their heels and to main¬
tain sober behavior. Students were to enroll
with a particular master, who undertook
both to teach and discipline them. The
faculty of arts, which granted the bachelor
of arts degree, was the largest, but theology,
law, and medicine were also taught at Paris.

Scholasticism dominated the study for
advanced degrees. Put simply, scholasti¬
cism is a method of logical argument used
for examining a variety ofissues. The method
derived first from the “old logic” used by
the 12th-century philosopher Abelard,
which was drawn from the portions of
Aristotle’s and Plato’s works that were trans¬
lated by Boethius. But in the 13th century
the “new logic,” based on the complete
works of Aristotle, was introduced into
Europe. The corpus (or body) of Aristotle’s
writing had come to Europe by a curious
route. It was among the books that the
Arabs found in Persia. They translated it,
and their scholars brought it to Spain.

114 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Thomas Aquinas reconciled the philo¬
sophical logic of Aristotle with the
teaching of the Church. His works are
still studied and form the basis of
much of Catholic theology.

There Hebrew scholars translated it, and
finally it was translated into Latin. The
reaction of European scholars to Aristotle
was extreme excitement, but the Church
was skeptical because his logic suggested
that knowledge of God could be derived by
reason rather than by faith or revelation.
Part of the argument between the Church
and the masters in Paris centered on the
study and teaching of Aristotle. The Church
could not ban his work, so instead it sought
to integrate it into Christian teachings.

The man who accomplished this task
was Thomas Aquinas. He was bom near
Naples in 1225 into a family related to
Frederick II. His father, a count, was ap¬
palled when his brilliant younger son decided
to become a Dominican. After all, he rea¬
soned, no member of his family should
belong to a begging, mendicant order.
Thomas’s father offered to buy the boy a
bishopnc if he was set on going into the
Church. His mother pleaded tearfully with
him not to become a friar and tried to
kidnap him from the order. His six brothers
thought that they could corrupt him and
break his resolve by putting a prostitute in
his bed. Thomas, however, would not be
tempted. After finishing his studies at the
University of Naples, he went to Paris,
where he earned his doctorate in 1257. He
then taught at the university, where he
wrote the treatise Summa Theologica (the
highest or most important theology), which
applied Aristotle to all aspects of Christian
teaching, including social and doctrinal
matters. Thomas argued that revealed
knowledge of the Bible and the truth that
was arrived at by Aristotle’s logic must agree
because truth is truth—one could not be¬

lieve one thing on faith and another thing
on reason.

To this end he applied the tools of logic,
including logical proof for the existence of
God. But he held that some concepts, such
as the Trinity (God, Christ, and the Holy
Ghost), could not be understood by human
reason because they were infinite. Only
God’s reason, which was infinite, could
understand such concepts, and faith would
have to be humans’ directive here. The
Dominican order so revered Thomas that,
when he died in 1274, they boiled his body
so that they could extract his bones and
keep them as relics. He was canonized as a
saint shortly after his death.

The best medical school in the 12th and
13th centuries was in Salerno, Sicily. Sicily
encompassed a remarkable mixture of cul¬
tures, unlike that in any other area of
Christian Europe except for parts of Spain.
In Sicily western Christians, Moslems, and
Greeks had all lived together, bringing with
them their intellectual texts, including the
superior Greek and Arabic medical texts. At
the University of Salerno students studied
these texts and learned anatomy by dissect¬
ing human cadavers. In Paris the Church
prohibited the dissection of human bodies,
though it did allow pigs to be dissected. As
a consequence, physicians with degrees
from Salerno were the more learned and
most valued.

Other universities were established
throughout Europe, mostly modeled on
the University of Paris. Another riot from
1229 to 1231 was partly responsible for the
dispersion of the Parisian faculty across
Europe. The masters had threatened to
leave Paris entirely, and some indeed did

move to the university in Oxford, which
was established in the late 11th century, and
to Cambridge, which traces its origins to
the dispersion of faculty from both Oxford
and Paris. Germany opened its first univer¬
sities in the 14th century, and gradually
towns in southern France, Austria, Bohemia,
and Poland built universities as well. With
Latin as the universal language of literacy
and lecturing, all the universities were in¬
ternational. Both students and faculty often
traveled from one university to another.

A series of examinations established a
student’s competency to teach. Students
seeking the bachelor of arts degree were
allowed to take the examinations after at¬
tending lectures for four years. The
curriculum was divided into the trivium
(grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic, or logical
argumentation) and quadrivium (anthmetic,
geometry, astronomy, and music). The
trivium, from which the word “trivial”
derives, would have been easy for a young
man coming to school with a good back¬
ground in reading and writing the Latin
language and in presenting arguments, or
logical proofs. The quadrivium was more
difficult, involving as it did the study of
mathematics and sciences; even the music

COMMUNITIES AND THEIR MEMBERS • 115

To treat a broken skull, medieval sur¬
geons cut the head open and either
put the pieces of bone back in place or
extracted them. The patient in this
illustration from a medical treatise
looks remarkably placid about this op¬
eration, but the chances of surviving
such radical surgery were poor.

portion focused on the study of harmony
rather than on performance. Books for
these subjects were expensive—some cost
as much as £10 when a loaf of bread cost
a penny—so students might rent books or
try to learn the subject matter by taking
lecture notes. The professor would read a
selection of the text for the day and then
explain or gloss its meaning for the stu¬
dents. Students used wax tablets and a
stylus to take notes, which they later trans¬
ferred to parchment.

When a student was at least 20 years old
and felt ready to take the examination, the
masters made up a committee that swore to
examine him fairly and pass or fail him
without prejudice. The student in turn

swore not to contest the masters’ decision.
The student was required to wear proper
attire, a gown with a hood and a cap (much
like modem academic robes), and was for¬
bidden from bringing a knife to the
examination. The panel of examiners ques¬
tioned the student, judged his success, and
awarded a degree if he knew the material
well. The student then invited the masters
and other students to a feast at his expense,
as custom dictated. Advanced degrees in
law and theology took an additional five to
seven years; candidates for the theology
degree had to be at least 35 years old. The
examination was similar, but the candidate
also had to present a wntten thesis that he
would be called upon to defend.

To pay for tuition, books, and room and
board, a student had to have a patron—a
member of the clergy or his family—-or rely
on alms. Students customarily spent their
summer vacations begging for money to
support them for the next year. Robert de
Sorbonne, a theologian, found a solution to
financing education, providing living ex¬
penses, and disciplining students with the
establishment of a residential college in
Paris in about 1258. His will included the
building of quarters for students of theol-
ogy, where they could live, dine, and study
in a library under a master’s supervision.
The Sorbonne, now a part of the Univer¬
sity ofParis, takes its name from this original
foundation.

Founding colleges became a favorite
form of charity for kings, queens, bishops,
and other wealthy people. The colleges
provided rooms, meals, libraries, lecture
halls, and chapels for students and for the
masters who supervised them. The college

116 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

system still exists today and can best be
observed at Oxford and Cambridge.

A number of options were open to boys
preparing to enter university. Those from
wealthy families had private tutors who
taught them grammar and rhetoric (the
trivium). Parish priests taught the children of
their parish, and many cathedrals had choir
schools in which boys were given lessons in
theology in exchange for singing at services
and funerals. Monasteries and nunneries
also played a role in educating young men
and women. By the late Middle Ages, the
endowment of grammar schools had be¬
come as popular among the wealthy as the
endowment of colleges. For instance, in the
15th century John Carpenter, a wealthy
London merchant, founded a grammar
school that still exists today. His will pro¬
vided for the teaching and housing of boys
called “Carpenter’s Children,” and gave
them a master who in addition to giving
lessons saw that they learned to shave,
bathed frequently, and had clean clothes
and adequate shoes.

A cardinal rule for the education of the
young was that “to spare the rod was to
spoil the child.” If a boy did not know his
lessons, he was beaten so that the next time
he came to school he would be prepared.
(The youth of Oxford must have enjoyed
hearing that one of their masters fell into a
river and drowned while gathering willow
twigs to make a switch.) Children learned
Latin from grammar books, used dictio¬
naries to help them translate their vernacular
language into Latin, practiced their sen¬
tences and Latin declensions on wax tablets,
and recited famous passages in Latin to
their teachers.

Women could
not go to universi¬
ties, because they
were clerical estab¬
lishments and women
were excluded from
any role in the
Church except that
of a nun. Some wo¬

men, however, did
learn to read and possibly to write. They
sometimes gained a knowledge of Latin
and classical works within nunneries.
Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179) com¬
posed a religious opera and hymns, wrote
medical treatises, and made up a private
alphabet of 23 letters and a language with
900 words. Traveling extensively, she
talked to people of all walks of life about
her religious visions. She was so famous in
her day that even St. Bernard ofClairvaux
consulted her.

The medieval universities established
a college system to provide students
with rooms, meals, books, and super¬
vision by masters. Merton College at
Oxford University still exists today.
In the Middle Ages it was best
known for its scientific and math¬
ematical scholars. Noiv known as the
<( Merton Calculators, ” they worked
on the earliest form of mathematical
physics.

A lay woman namedjacoba Felicie prac¬
ticed medicine very successfully in Paris and
its environs, until she ran afoul of the
University ofParis because she did not have
a university degree. In her defense, a num¬
ber of men and women came forward to
testify that she had succeeded in curing
them after the “Doctors of the University”
had failed. Jacoba probably had more im¬
mediate knowledge of the body and its parts
and functions than did those who received
medical degrees from Paris after studying
the anatomy of pigs. Furthermore, she, like
many women, knew much more about
healing herbs than did the “doctors.” Nev¬
ertheless, she lost her right to practice in the
face of the university’s monopoly on medi¬
cal education.

COMMUNITIES AND THEIR MEMBERS • 117

The guilds and the cities of Europe
regulated the price and quality of basic
items such as bread and other foods,
wine, beer, shoes, and clothing. Bak¬
ers were to make bread of
good-quality grain rather than adding
sawdust, the weight was specified,
and the amount they could charge de¬
pended on the market price of grain.
Those who sold inadequate bread
were put on a hurdle behind horses
with the bad bread tied around their
necks, and were pulled through the
streets to advertise to the population
who sold bad bread.

Hildegard, pictured in the left corner at
her desk, mote about medicine in her
Book of Divine Works. Like
many other medical thinkers, she be¬
lieved that cosmic forces such as planets
and constellations influenced the body
and health. The constellations and
signs of the Zodiac surround the body
in the center.

Women tended to be more literate in
the vernacular languages than men. Some
probably also could read official documents
in Latin on legal matters concerning land
and divorce. Certainly, the 12th century
produced authors such as Marie de France
and literary patrons such as Eleanor of
Aquitaine. Wills show that women bought
and bequeathed to their daughters religious
books, romances, and books on courtly
behavior. In the art of the period, the Virgin
Mary and other women were often de¬
picted holding books, as opposed to men,
who were shown clutching either swords
or symbols of ecclesiastical office. Such
images indicate how closely women were
identified with reading.

In all probability, women were the first
instructors of their male and female chil¬
dren. Whereas the boys went on to schools,
the girls continued to learn in the home
with tutors or were sent to nunneries for
further training. But an education in read¬
ing and doing sums was a requirement
mostly of the landed classes and the bour¬
geoisie . Women were often left in charge of
estates and businesses either because their
husbands were away at war or on business

or because they were widows. In any case,
they needed to learn how to read house¬
hold accounts, charters, and other official
documents.

The demand for education spread
throughout Europe as the legal, clerical,
and judicial worlds became more compli¬
cated. Students needed to have the
baccalaureate in order to receive more
specialized training. With only two years of
law school in continental Europe, a man
could become a notary and make a very
good living drawing up legal contracts. In
England the baccalaureate degree was help¬
ful in entering the Inns of Court, where
students learned common law. Common
law was based on precedents established in
earlier cases or practice. Lawyers could
work for the government as bureaucrats or
for private clients as attorneys. Merchants
who traded both locally and internationally
needed to be able to read a contract in Latin.
Increasingly, they required their appren¬
tices to be literate before they could become
masters in their vocation.

Controlling admittance into a guild or
universitas was the practice not only of
universities in the 13th and 14th centuries.
In urban communities as well, craftsmen
and merchants came together to keep the
untrained out of their professions. The
masters began by regulating themselves.
They established the standards of quality
necessary for their basic products and re¬
quired anyone who wanted to be a master
to demonstrate that he could produce a
product of this standard. For example, a
baker or a shoemaker had to prove to his
guild that he could produce a fine quality
basic loaf of daily wheat bread or a basic

118 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

shoe. Only after having done so could he
become a master of his trade. Those who
were not guild members could not trade.
Those who allowed the quality of their
wares to drop were punished by the guild
and the city for selling false goods. A loaf of
bread or a shoe, for instance, had to be made
of high quality materials. Bread could not
contain sawdust or rotted grain, and shoes
had to be made of new, well-tanned leather.
Punishments for selling false goods included
fining members for a first offense. If a
guildsman proved recalcitrant, city officials
would have him paraded through the streets
with musicians playing drums and beating
on pans. The miscreant would be led to the
public pillory with the offending item—his
bad bread or his shoddy shoes—strung
around his neck. His false goods would then
be burned under his nose. Vintners who
sold sour wine had to drink a draught of it,
and the rest was poured over their heads.
Guilds of merchants who dealt in banking
and long-distance trade also regulated their
members and fined them for false dealings.

Modem economists have criticizedguilds
because they limited outside competition
and kept prices high as a consequence.
Consumers, however, benefited under the
guild system. With both guilds and the city
governments regulating business, they could
be sure that the city's banking and trade
practices conformed to international busi¬
ness standards, and that the products they
bought were of good quality. Weights and
measures were carefully regulated by the
city. Consumers had the satisfaction of
seeing corrupt tradesmen paraded through
the streets, a warning to all not to buy
products from them. Those merchants and

artisans who persisted in their bad practices
were expelled from the guild and the city,
so they could no longer trade. The guild
system also allowed tradesmen a margin of
profit. Although the price of basic bread,
shoes, or cloth was set, a guildsman could
sell higher quality goods—such as fine cakes
and pies, exquisite boots or court shoes, or
beautifully woven velvets or brocades—for
a great profit. Price controls affected only
basic goods.

Like those of the universities, the urban
guilds were controlled by masters, who
undertook the training of apprentices. Ap¬
prentices wanted to learn particular trades
so that they too could become masters. In
the artisan guilds, most apprentices were
peasants. But in the higher guilds—such as
those of goldsmiths, bankers, overseas mer¬
chants, vintners, and clothiers—the
apprentices came from urban families and
were often the younger sons of knights.
The family or friends of an apprentice
agreed to pay a sum to his master to take in
the young person for a set number of years,
usually from 7 to 10, or sometimes even
more. Apprenticeships began when a young
man was about 14, old enough to be able to
learn a trade. Parents or friends testified to
the honesty and good upbringing of the
young person, and the master agreed to
provide clothing, a sleeping space, food,
training, and a small salary as the apprentice
became more skilled at the work. The
apprentice could not spend the master’s
money on gambling or theater and could
not marry during the course of apprentice¬
ship. The apprentice moved into the home
of the master and his family. He or she
might be the only apprentice in the house-

Guilds identified themselves by their
clothing and other symbols. Each
guild wore specially colored robes in
civic parades and at guild feasts. They
also had coats of arms that indicated
their trade .

COMMUNITIES AND THEIR MEMBERS • 119

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hold or there might be three or more,
depending on the extent of the master’s
business.

Relationships between masters and ap¬
prentices varied considerably. Sometimes,
they became extremely close, at other times,
apprentices were badly abused. A male
apprentice might be left his master’s busi¬
ness and responsibility of rearing his minor
children. On the other hand, apprentices
sometimes needed to call in the guild and
the urban officials to remove them from the
starvation, poor training, and beatings re¬
ceived in the master’s home. If all went
according to plan, however, an apprentice
could produce, at the end of the term, a fine
loaf of ordinary bread or a very good shoe
and qualify for membership in the appro¬

priate guild. At first, apprentices might not
have the capital to open their own business,
but they could get work as day laborers, or
journeymen, and make a living by working
as skilled laborers.

In the 13th century, formal corporate
movements were also organized in villages.
While such movements might have existed
before, it is only from this period that
written records about how peasants orga¬
nized their communities have survived.
Peasant villages had anywhere from 50 to
800 residents. With such a small number of
people living and working closely together,
people were able to get to know everyone
very well and to look after each other.

But sometimes villagers knew each other
too well and got on each other’s nerves.

In the 13th century Herny Brackton,
a royal judge, wrote On the Laws
and Customs of England. Since
English law was based on statutes
and cases that set precedents for proce¬
dure and practice, such compilations
and interpretations of the law were
essential. The top of this page from
his manuscript shows the king as
the lawgiver flanked by soldiers and
lawyers.

Tensions existed at all levels of village life.
Because the strips in the open fields were
not marked by fences, men argued over
where one strip ended and another began.
They claimed that their neighbors reaped
their wheat or that another man’s plow had
encroached onto their strip. They also ar¬
gued about when the village herds should
be allowed to graze in the fields after the
harvest and who among the villagers had
gleaning rights—that is, the right to go into
the fields after harvest and pick up the stray
grain that had escaped harvesting.

The villagers found that having bylaws
that regulated these petty encroachments
and a system of fines that permitted them to
punish offenders helped to keep the peace.
For example, the bylaws established that
only the very poor of the village would
have gleaning rights both after the grain
harvest and just before the pea and bean
harvest. The period after the harvest during
which animals could graze was mutually
agreed upon. To define the boundaries
dividing one village from another, villagers
established a date when the whole village
would turn out and walk around the bound¬
aries—a custom called “beating the bounds. ”

The bylaws were enforced in the lord’s
manorial court. Every three weeks the
lord’s bailiff, or estate manager, held a court
that recorded transfers of lands, inherit¬
ances, infractions of the rules of the manor,
and so forth, and the dues and fines that
were paid for these transactions and repri¬
mands. The peasants used the same court to
settle their private disputes and to enforce
village peace. Thus two men who argued
about encroachments on each other’s strips
could bring the dispute to court and ask a
jury made up of their neighbors to declare

f v ' v £Tl ^ fro t ttjti

120 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

who was at fault and fine the guilty party.
People who disturbed the peace of the
village by being noisy, argumentative, or
abusive could be brought to court and
fined. And those wealthy peasant women
who went to the fields to glean when only
poor women had that right were reported
and fined in the manorial court.

Peasants became used to acting as a
governing unit through their administra¬
tion of the bylaws and participation in
community policing. They learned to ar¬
gue in courts; to recognize, even if they
could not read, the vanous Latin docu¬
ments from the king; and to understand the
value of written records by having their
own land transactions recorded in the ma¬
norial courts and by asking the bailiff to
check these where disputes arose. Their
cooperative action in village governance
also led them to negotiate with their lords
about changes in manorial rules.

The people’s desire for self-government
spilled over into the arena of the monar¬
chies as well. In England John I was
succeeded by his son, Henry III, who was
a mere child. A coalition of nobles, church¬
men, townsmen, and knights from the
shires wanted to be sure that the provisions
of Magna Carta would not be set aside.
They had become accustomed to interven¬
ing in the royal government and formed a
council to rule for the young king.

When the king came of age, he rebelled
against the nobles and pursued his own
policies. Throughout most of his long reign
in the 13th century, he fought with his
nobles, but particularly with Simon de
Montfort, who organized resistance against
him. Although there were several pitched
battles, the most lasting effect of the struggle

The Memoirs of Jean, sire tie Joinville

"On Chmtims Day I
and my knights were
dining with Pierre
d’Avallon. While we
were at table the Saracens
[Moslems] came spur¬
ring hotly up to our
camp and killed several
poor fellows who had
gone tor a scroll in the
fields. Weal] went off to
ami ourselves but. quick
as we were, we did not
return in time to rejoin
our host; for tie was al¬
ready outside tbe camp
and had gone to light
the Saracens. We
spurred after him and
rescued him from the
enemy, who had thrown
him to the ground.”

J ean de Joinville was
a nobleman from
Champagne who
wrote a biography of
King Louis IX of France.
He accompanied Louis
on his crusade to Egypt
and on subsequent ones
to Jerusalem and other
points in the east.
Joinville paid his own
way on these expeditions,
but at least once he re¬
ceived aid from Louis.
Throughout his life he
was an intimate of the
king. After the king died
and his grandson married
the countess of Cham¬
pagne, Joinville wrote his
memoirs at her request.

Joinville completed his
task in 1309, He lived 10
years more, dying at the
fine old age ot 95.

Although he wrote of
events many years after
they had taken place, his
detailed stories, particu¬
larly those concerning
battle such as the one de-
pitted below, retain their
sense of immediacy.
Joinville’s work is a testi¬
mony to the importance
of the oral retelling ot
tales in the Middle Ages.

Louis IX (in center of boat) and his knights set sail for one of his crusades . Joinville was
his companion throughout his campaigns.

COMMUNITIES AND THEIR MEMBERS • 121

Edward I—flanked by the two arch¬
bishops of England and the kings of
Scotland and Wales—convenes the
English Parliament in Westminster
Hall, which still stands. Churchmen
sit on the left and red-robed barons on
the right. The judges are seated on
woolsacks between them. Wool was
one of the most important products of
England , so it is fitting that it had a
place in Parliamentary ceremony.

arose from Simon’s need to enlarge his
power base by asking representatives of the
counties and towns to support his rebellion.
These meetings of an expanded council
came to be called the Parliament.

When the representatives of the towns
and counties gathered in Westminster, they
met separately from the nobles and power¬
ful bishops and abbots. Eventually these

two groups became known as the House of
Communes or communities (“commons”
in modern parlance) and the House of
Lords. Simon de Montfort called the repre¬
sentatives together largely for a show of
support for his policies. But the meetings
proved so useful that when Edward I came
to the throne on Henry’s death, he contin¬
ued to call two elected representatives from
each county and town on special occasions.
His parliament of 1295, during which the
representatives split into the two houses,
became the model for future parliaments.
Edward’s main purpose in organizing the
parliaments was to inform the people of his
policies, including his wish to conquer
Wales. When Wales was finally defeated,
he called a parliament to announce his
victory and to consult with the representa¬
tives on whether David Llwellyn, the king
of the Welsh, should be hanged like a
common criminal or beheaded as befitted a
nobleman. The representatives were not
given the option of sparing Llwellyn’s life,
nor did they have any say in the appropria¬
tion of the title “Prince of Wales” for the
heir apparent to the English throne.

By the 14th century it had become
customary for the king to call Parliament
when he planned to impose a general tax on
the population. It was convenient to have
the House of Commons approve the tax,
because the king and his officials received
more cooperation from the people if the
parliamentary representatives returned to
the countryside and explained why the king
wanted taxes. Increasingly, however, the
subjects became more concerned about
how their money was being spent, and
instructed their parliamentary representa¬
tives to negotiate with the king and correct

122 • THE MIDDLE AGES t AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Philip IV the Fair (seated, center) is
surrounded by his children. The crowned
queen is Isabelle, wife of Edward II and
mother of Edward III. When Louis died
his four sons inherited the throne in suc¬
cession. Since none of them produced a
male heir, Edward III, as the son of
Isabelle, claimed the throne. This act of
defiance was among the causes of the
Hundred Years’ War.

mistakes they believed he was making in
government. For instance, the House of
Commons would tell the king that it would
grant a subsidy, but only on the condition
that he make some changes in law enforce¬
ment that would get rid of criminal gangs
and punish those who were disrupting daily
life and trade. By the mid-14th century, the
Commons had become critical of the king’s
free spending of money on warfare and
wanted even more say in the way tax
money was being spent. Thus, the House of
Commons gradually became more power¬
ful, and more inclined to intervene in royal
government.

In France the development of represen¬
tative institutions was largely at the local
level, because the provincial structure of
France remained strong. The defeat of John
Lackland and the crusade against the
Albigensians had brought much more
French territory under the direct rule of the
monarch. The French mode of ruling re¬
lied on a well-trained, university-educated
class ofprofessional lawyers and administra¬
tors. Royal officials administered the king’s
justice, collected his taxes, and carried out
his policies. To keep them honest and loyal,
they were paid a salary and were moved
about every five years so that they did not
build up a local patronage system. Further¬
more, Louis IX (1226-70) increased
surveillance of their work by sending out
royal agents who traveled throughout the
kingdom to hear complaints about his offi¬
cials’ administration. The French came to
use the word parlement (meaning “a talk” or
“a discussion”) for a central court that tried
cases from all over France.

France retained elements of the old sys¬
tem of government until the late 13th

century. The contemporary biographer of
Louis IX, Jean, sire dejoinville, wrote that
his monarch sat on a rug under a tree,
listening to cases his subjects brought to him
and dispensing justice. Louis, however,
spent little of his reign in France. His
consuming passion was crusading, which
earned him the title of “Saint Louis.” Leav¬
ing the kingdom in the capable hands of his
mother, Blanche of Castile, he set off with
an inadequate army in 1248, hoping to
capture Egypt and force the Moslems there
to surrender Jerusalem. Joinville accompa¬
nied Louis and later described the king’s
great enthusiasm as the army began its first
battle. Ignoring his advisors’ warnings, Louis
jumped into the sea in full armor with his
lance and shield and waded ashore with the
first wave of knights. Once in Egypt he
entered into a prolonged fight, during which
dysentery (a serious intestinal disorder) was
more of a threat to his army than warfare.
The king’s own case was so bad that,
according to Joinville, his undergarments
were cut away so that he could have easier
access to latrines. He and his army were
captured, and only because he fell into the
hands of superior Arab physicians did Louis
survive the dysentery.

After paying ransoms for their freedom,
the men returned to France but stayed only
briefly. Soon they were off to the Holy

Land on another crusade of hardship and
defeat. Louis finally died in Tunisia, again
on a crusade.

His grandson, Philip IV the Fair
(1285-1314)—he was reputedly very
handsome—was not the idealist that his
grandfather had been. Pitting himselfagainst
a worthy adversary, Edward I of England,
he carried on a series of skirmishes over the
former Angevin possessions in France. For
both Edward and Philip, carrying out war¬
fare required first raising the money to
finance it. Whereas the English became
increasingly used to taxation, the French
monarch looked elsewhere to raise his funds.
Philip identified two potential sources of
wealth that he might tap: the Jews and the
clergy. In 1306 he expelled the Jews from
France but seized their wealth before they
left. Edward had already plundered and
expelled the English Jews in 1292. The
Jews went to the more tolerant new king¬
doms and to the old Arab states in Spain.

Philip was aided in his maneuvers by the
new class of university-trained lawyers,
particularly his chief adviser, William de
Nogaret. This man had mastered the most
practical aspects of a university education,
which included sophisticated argumenta¬
tive styles and a good knowledge of canon
and civil law. His rise to power was based on
his good education, audacity, and loyalty to

COMMUNITIES AND THEIR MEMBERS • 123

Frederick IPs book on the art of fal¬
conry is still considered a valuable
guide to this manner of hunting.
Falcons were expensive and prized
birds, a hunting animal that only the
nobility could afford .

his monarch. He organized an attack on the
pope in order to gain control of the money
that lay people paid to the clergy every year.
The clergy in turn sent a portion to the
pope in Rome. Tapping these funds would
give the French king considerable income.
But understanding this struggle for money
requires a digression to Italy, to explain
what was going on there at the time.

In the early 13th century, Italy was part
of the Holy Roman Empire. The heir to
the throne, Frederick II—son of Queen
Constance of the Kingdoms of Naples and
Sicily and Henry VI, Emperor of Ger¬
many—was the ward of Pope Innocent III.
The pope insisted that Frederick agree to
three conditions when he became em¬
peror: He must be loyal to the pope, crusade
against the Moslems in Jerusalem, and aban¬
don control ofSicily and Italy while retaining
an empire north of the Alps in Germany.

Frederick had the most unusual rearing
and parentage of any European monarch.
He was the grandson of Roger II ofSicily
and had many of the Norman characteris¬
tics that had earned his predecessors names
such as “the Fox. ” The grandson of Freder¬
ick I Barbarossa, he was also a German,
although he did not visit Gemiany until
1211. Although a papal ward and heir to the
German imperial title, he was reared in
Sicily. He was endowed with a fine intelli¬
gence that permitted him to absorb the

learning of local Arabic, Greek, and Latin
cultures. Unlike most people during the
Middle Ages, he was comfortable dealing
with people from all three cultures.

Frederick was always interested in scien¬
tific experiments and the observation of
nature, and was fascinated with biology. He
traveled with a menagerie that included
ostriches, parrots, monkeys, leopards, pan¬
thers, lions, camels, a giraffe, and an elephant.
He wrote a book, On the Art of Hunting with
Birds, that contains a general sketch of
ornithology (the study of birds), as well as
information on hawks, falcons, eagles, and
other hunting birds. The book is based on
his own observations and is illustrated with
accurate pictures that were drawn and col¬
ored under his personal direction. He also
conducted a number of experiments. For
instance, he had heard that in Norway
certain geese hatched from barnacles. He
sent for some of the barnacles and discov¬
ered for himself that they did not produce
geese. He concluded that the myth had
started because people did not know where
the birds’ nests were built. Frederick also
experimented with how buzzards identi¬
fied meat. He placed hoods over their eyes,
and when they could not detect meat near
them, he concluded that sight rather than
smell facilitated their hunting. It was also
said that he thought he could discover the
language of Adam by raising two children

who would be nursed and cared for but
would not be taught to speak. The children,
however, died before they spoke.

Frederick applied his scientific reasoning
to politics—a most unusual practice for a
monarch of his day. At 18 he was already
defying the new pope. He made it clear that
he planned to concentrate his power in
Sicily and Italy rather than in Germany by
having his infant son made king of Ger¬
many and himself declared emperor. His
empire was to include the wealthy states of
southern Italy in addition to Milan and
selected cities that surrounded Rome. The
pope countered by reminding him of his
oath to go on crusade. Frederick, whose
first wife had already died, married the
heiress to the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem.
He claimed to be eager to crusade, but only
when the time was right—he was secretly
negotiating with the Arabs to gain access to
Jerusalem.

Under papal pressure, he finally em¬
barked on a crusade but returned to port
complaining that his army was sick and
could not go to war. Suspecting that he was
only malingering, the pope excommuni¬
cated him. Nevertheless, once Frederick
had finished his negotiations he sailed tri¬
umphantly out of port as an excommuni¬
cated crusader. He concluded his mission
by signing an agreement with the Moslems
to give Jerusalem to the Christians and
provide a corridor from the port of Acre to
the holy city. All that the Moslems required
in exchange was that they be permitted to
worship in their mosques. Frederick, a man
with a good understanding of Arab culture,
had no hesitation in entering into an agree¬
ment with the “infidel” within a year of

124 • THE MIDDLE AGES I AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

beginning the crusade. But the pope was
very distrustful of any Christian, particu¬
larly Frederick II, who made deals with
those who could not swear an oath that was
binding with the Christian God. Several
more years passed before he removed the
ban of excommunication.

The pope was right to be suspicious of
Frederick. He simply did not play by the
rules of medieval feudal and Christian eth¬
ics. His kingdom and rule were more similar
to those of an eastern despot or a Byzantine
emperor than a king of England or France.
After returning from his crusade, Frederick
began to build an efficient state in Sicily.
Sicily became a safe haven for shipping
because his trade agreements with the
Moslem states had removed much of the
threat of piracy. Within Sicily Frederick
encouraged the growth of new crops such
as dates, sugar, and cotton. Under his guid¬
ance laws were codified; the economy
prospered; and Moslems, Greeks, Jews, and
Christians lived in harmony. He had vowed
to the pope, however, that he would aban¬
don Sicily in favor of Germany. Instead, he
allowed the princes, prelates, and cities of
the Holy Roman Empire to go their own
way. Like his grandfather he tried to take
control of the wealthy cities of northern
Italy. A series of battles, in which the pope
sided with the cities, remained inconclusive
because Frederick died in 1250.

The 13th century saw a great number of
changes in the politics ofEurope that would
have consequences for centuries to come.
Henry Ill’s weak rule in England and the
death of Frederick II’s sons meant that the
Capetian dynasty in France became the
most powerful monarchy in Europe. King

Louis DCs younger brother, Charles of
Anjou, was looking for projects and de¬
cided to take over Sicily and southern Italy.
By good fortune and some maneuvering on
the part of the Capetians, there was a
French pope who welcomed a French
initiative. Charles, however, did not take
into consideration the local opposition in
Sicily nor the power of King Peter of
Aragon. Aragon had emerged as a powerful
kingdom in Spain when its king married
the heiress of the valuable province of
Catalonia and gained a navy. With a power
vacuum in Sicily, Peter of Aragon sent his
fleet. His aggression coincided with the
Sicilian Vespers of 1282. On Easter Mon¬
day, when the church bells rang to call the
congregations to evening service, this pre¬
arranged insurrection led to the massacre of
all Charles of Anjou’s supporters. Peter of
Aragon stepped into this civil revolt and
claimed Sicily for himself. Some historians
argue that the Mafia originated in the Sicil¬
ian Vespers.

Following the Sicilian Vespers, the Col¬
lege of Cardinals realized that it must elect
an Italian pope rather than a French one and
that he must be a person of outstanding
character who could regain respect for the
spiritual mission of the Church. The cardi¬
nals selected a pious monk from southern
Italy, who became Celestine V. The cardi¬
nals hoped that Celestine would be a
figurehead for spiritual matters and leave
the papal bureaucracy to continue running
financial and political affairs. But the more
Celestine learned of the papal bureaucrats
and their program the more worried he
became. He felt that if he allowed the
corruption he discovered to continue, his

Pope Boniface VIII argued
strongly for papal supremacy.

He quarreled with both Edward
I of England and Philip IV of
France to keep them from taxing
the clergy in their countries . He
died after being captured by
agents of Philip IV.

COMMUNITIES AND THEIR MEMBERS • 125

Marco Polo

The caravan route across the vast internal land of Asia was known as the Great Silk Road. Marco Polo and his family took it to China. Silks,
rugs, spices, precious gems, and other luxury goods were carried by camel. Tire merchants rode horses.

M arco Polo’s father
was a Venetian
merchant named
Niccolo. He and Marco’s
uncle had made a trip to
China in 1260 when
Marco was only six years
old and returned with
stories of the great wealth
they had found there. On
a second voyage in 1271
Marco went along, and
he and his family spent 20
years traveling through
India, southeast Asia, and

China under the patron¬
age of the Chinese
emperor, Kublai Khan.
Other Christians—
including merchants, mis¬
sionaries, and Byzantine
immigrants—were also
present in the Orient at
the time.

Marco Polo wrote his
memoirs after his return in
1292. He was then a pris¬
oner in Genoa, where he
met the romance writer
Rustichello of Pisa. Polo’s

account indicates that both
men wrote the memoirs.
The book recounts the
perils of the route and the
customs Polo leamt along
the way. For example, he
described a drink he dis¬
covered in southern Asia:
“In this country they make
date wine with the addi¬
tion of various spices, and
very good it is. When it is
drunk by men who are
not used to it, it loosens
the bowels and makes a

thorough purge; but after
that it does them good and
makes them put on flesh.”
Not having seen coal be¬
fore, he wrote: “Let me
tell you next of stones that
bum like logs. It is a fact
that throughout the prov¬
ince in Cathay [China]
there is a sort of black
stone, which is dug out of
veins in the hillsides and
bums like logs. These
stones keep a fire going
better than wood.”

The three Venetians
spent 17 years in the ser¬
vice of the Khan and
became immensely rich.
They then wanted to re¬
turn home, but the Khan
was reluctant to let them
go. Finally, however, he
needed to transport a Chi¬
nese bride to the king of
Persia by sea. Marco, his
father, and his uncle un¬
dertook the task and from
Persia made their way
back to Venice.

immortal soul would be endangered. How
could the successor of St. Peter rule over
such covetousness? Celestine began to have
dreams in which he heard a voice saying
that it was the will of God that he resign.
Later, detractors of his successor, Boniface
VIII (1294-1303), suggested that he had
actually rigged up a speaking tube into
Celestine’s chamber and intoned the words
himself.

Boniface undertook to stop secular rul¬
ers from taxing the clergy by issuing a papal
bull against the practice. Edward I of En¬
gland responded by threatening to outlaw
any subject who disobeyed him, and Philip

IV of France simply forbade any gold or
silver to leave his domain, thereby effec¬
tively stopping the flow of money to the
papacy. Not one to take defeat lightly,
Boniface issued more bulls, which Philip
took as insults to the French monarchy. In
1302 Philip called the first general meeting
of the three estates: the nobility, the clergy,
and the commons or third estate. The
French king usually met these groups sepa¬
rately on a regional basis, but Philip brought
together all representatives for what be¬
came known as the Estates General. At that
first meeting, the king’s adviser, William de
Nogaret, twisted the content of the bulls to

make them seem even more insulting and
persuaded the Estates General to back Philip.
Undaunted, Boniface issued yet another
bull, this time claiming that all Christians
were his subjects. Philip IV’s response was
to send Nogaret to Italy to confront
Boniface, Finding the pope at his vacation
home in Anagni, he and some of the pope’s
enemies from Rome captured Boniface.
Realizing that a captive pope was just an
embarrassment to them, however, they let
him go. Boniface died a month later.

It is a measure of the low prestige of the
papacy that Philip suffered no reprisals for
his attack on Boniface. When the cardinals

126 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

elected the archbishop of Bordeaux, a sub¬
ject of the king of England, as the next
pope, people thought he would favor the
English. In fact, he rescinded the bulls
against Philip and forgave all those who had
taken part in the attack at Anagni. Rather
than moving to Rome, the new pope stayed
in France, settling in the city of Avignon.
This marked the beginning of the Avignon
papacy; his successors also settling there.

The 13th century was a pivotal period in
the political history ofEurope. The organi¬
zation of representative bodies was the first
tentative step toward constitutional monar¬
chy. Universities provided educated and
trained people not only for the clergy, but
also for secular governments and towns.
The breakup of the Kingdom of the Two
Sicilies and the disintegration of the Holy
Roman Empire changed the political map
ofEurope for centuries. The island of Sicily
remained under Aragon, but Naples be¬
came a separate city-state. The northern
Italian towns also formed city-states that
bickered and warred with each other. Italy
would not be united into a single state until
1870. In Germany the tendency for the
nobles, bishops, and towns to pursue their
own policies gathered momentum with
Frederick IPs abandonment of interest in
the empire. The princes of the Holy Ro¬
man Empire finally met in the late 13th
century and elected Rudolph of Hapsburg
(reigned 1273-1291), a minor noble from
Alsace, as emperor. The Hapsburg dynasty
became a major power in the 16th century
through a series of marriages that brought
Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, and even Bur¬
gundy and Spain under its control. But if
the Hapsburgs gained a title, they lost con¬

siderable territory. The Swiss fomied a
confederation and freed themselves from
the Hapsburgs in 1291. Germany remained
a loosely organized group of principalities,
bishoprics, and towns under a Hapsburg
emperor until Otto von Bismarck unified
them in the late 19th century.

A fter the death of Frederick II
and a period with no king,
the German nobility elected
Rudolf I of Hapsburg. He
was not among the powerful
nobles and the German nobil¬
ity thought that he would be
unable to create problems for
them or involve them in
struggles in Italy. However,
the Hapsburgs were more suc¬
cessful than anticipated .
Largely though a series of
strategic marriages they be¬
came a dominant power in
central Europe.

COMMUNITIES AND THEIR MEMBERS • 127

Chapter 8

The Four Horsemen
of the Apocalypse

The mortality from the plague was so
great in the late 14th and 15th centu¬
ries that death became a predominant
theme in medieval art. Representa¬
tions of death, such as the sarcophagus
below the horseman , showed the rav¬
ages of decayed bodies . The armies of
the dead, clothed in their shrouds, are
led by Death, one of the four horse¬
men of the apocalypse. They easily
defeat the living army and march to¬
ward a prosperous city.

F rancesco de Marco Datini, an Italian
merchant from Prato, lived through
the best and the worst of the late
Middle Ages. He was only a child
when the Black Death raged through Italy in
1348 and killed his parents. He had a small
inheritance and was raised by a woman to
whom he referred affectionately as a substi¬
tute mother; she signed her letters to him as
“your mother in love/’ Francesco appren¬
ticed himself to a merchant in Florence and
learned to trade. Soon after his 15th birth¬
day, he joined other merchants who were
going to the rich papal city of Avignon. He
prospered by importing Italian art and luxury
items for the cardinals and other wealthy
people who lived there. When Datini was
more than 40, he returned to Prato and
married Margherita, who was 25 years his
junior. He was often away, and they ex¬
changed letters weekly. All of these letters
and many others are preserved in his house
in Prato. Although he was successful in
business, he shared the anxieties of many
people in the late Middle Ages about visita¬
tions of the plague. When plague was raging
in Prato, Datini, Margherita, and his illegiti¬
mate daughter set out by mule for Bologna

onjune 17,1400. One ofhis correspondents
wrote from Florence, “I have seen two of
my children die in my arms in a few hours.”
Datini himself lived another 10 years, dying
peacefully in Prato in 1411.

People living during the 14th and 15th
centuries often alluded to the Four Horse¬
men of the Apocalypse: famine, disease,
war, and death or salvation. In northern
Europe a prolonged shift in the weather
patterns brought colder and wetter weather,
which resulted in poor harvests and severe
famines in the early 14th century. Disease,
the second horseman, brought the Black
Death in 1348, killing off a third to half of the
population. War, never a stranger to Eu¬
rope, took on a new and more deadly form
in the late 14th and 15th centuries. Europe
had settled down to organized warfare un¬
der monarchies. Battles were contained on
battlefields and did not do much harm to the
local populations. During the Hundred Years’
War (1337-1453) between England and
France, however, battles were infrequent.
The real fighting was a war of attrition, in
which France preyed on English shipping
and invaded England’s southern coast and
English troops marauded the French country-

THE FOUR HORSEMEN OF THE APOCALYPSE • 129

The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
Bring Terror to Europe_

B oth ancient Hebrew
and Christian litera¬
ture included texts that
dealt with the end of the
world. In the New Testa¬
ment, the book of
Revelation is often called
the Apocalypse, whereas in
the Old Testament the
world’s end appears in
Isaiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and
other books.

The subject inspired
texts full of rich imagery
and symbols, among them
the Four Horsemen of the

Apocalypse. The meaning
of these figures has been
widely interpreted. One in¬
terpretation holds that the
rider of the white horse is
Christ, the rider of the red
horse is war, the rider of the
black horse is famine, and
the rider of the pale horse is
death and disease.

The significance and
meaning of the Bible’s
apocalyptic prophesies re¬
ceived considerable
attention from both Chris¬
tian and Jewish writers

during the Middle Ages.
Apocalypse 1:1-2 introduces
the text: “The revelation of
Jesus Christ which God
gave him, to make known
to his servants the things
that must shortly come to
pass; and he sent and signi¬
fied them through his angel
to his servant John . . .
Blessed is he who reads and
those who hear the words
of this prophecy, and keep
the things that are written
therein; for the time is at
hand.”

side, where they destroyed vineyards and
plundered livestock, valuables, and crops.
The pope was still at Avignon, but the
papacy was by now completely discredited
by its continual search for new sources of
money. Many people had begun to question
the pope’s authority, and new heresies—
such as those of university professors John
WyclifFe andJanHus—drew followers. With
so much going wrong, people thought the
end of the world was near.

But these two centuries also brought
new ideas, new freedom, new piety, and a
comfortable life for many who survived the
calamities. Vernacular, as opposed to Latin,
literature became popular. Dante Alighieri,
Francesco Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio,
Geoffrey Chaucer, and Christine de Pisan
all contributed to the new literature. If the
papacy was corrupt, the laity was becoming
more pious and more intent on building

their own parish churches and ensuring
their own salvation. Luxuries of fine cloth,
foods, larger homes, books, and art became
more available as the population shrank. In
the midst of death, therefore, new benefits
arose for the living.

Famine devastated the poor of northern
Europe during the Great Famine from
1315 to 1317 and again in the early 1320s.
Contemporary accounts note that it rained
so much in the summer of 1315 that the
crops were ruined by the wet weather. The
rain continued, making the fields too muddy
for planting the winter wheat in the fall and
the summer crops in the spring. The harvest
was pitiful, and the grain that could be
harvested had to be dried in ovens. And the
rain continued into 1317. The cattle devel¬
oped diseases due to the wet weather and
lack of grain and died. The poor died of
starvation in lanes and fields in the country

and in alleys in the cities. Prisoners tore
apart and ate new inmates who were put
into their jails. At a distribution of alms in
London, 60 men, women, and children
were crushed to death as the crowd pushed
forward to get pennies for food. Charities
had no surplus food to distribute because
crops grown at monasteries were also ru¬
ined. Importation offood in large quantities
from southern Europe was not feasible.
When the king of England sought such
relief, pirates boarded the ships before they
could reach port. The population had no
sooner recovered than another famine hit
in 1323.

The pope, comfortably resident in
Avignon, suffered none of the deprivation
of the faithful of northern Europe. Rome
was in the hands of hostile families who
engaged in fighting each other and oppos¬
ing any candidate for pope that the other
side proposed. Over time the popes pur¬
chased the town of Avignon (located in
what is now southern France), which was
surrounded by vineyards, orchards, and
grain fields. They built a magnificent palace
that still stands, and the cardinals built
palaces for themselves in the town and
surrounding countryside. The churchmen
became patrons of artisans, artists, and writ¬
ers, who were flourishing in the late 14th
and 15th centuries. But the Avignon popes
had some serious problems. They had the
difficult task of defending their position as
successors of St. Peter, founder of the Church
of Rome, while living outside that city and
never visiting it. They also had financial
woes. All of the estates that Pope Gregory
the Great had spent so much time organiz¬
ing and administering and that subsequent

130 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

popes had defended against such powerful
monarchs as Frederick I and II were now in
the hands of various factions, none ofwhich
wanted to contribute the usual amount to
support the papacy. The papacy therefore
had to look elsewhere for money. The
pope had lost much of his power to tax the
clergy because of fights with Edward I and
Philip IV, so the papal courts became even
more rapacious in collecting fines for di¬
vorces and annulments of marriages, and
the popes sold bishoprics to the highest
bidder. They also began an aggressive policy
of selling indulgences, or the forgiveness of
particular sins. Finally, they began to sell a
plenary indulgence, which would forgive
sins not yet committed. The theological
presumption was that the sacrifice ofjesus at
his crucifixion and the suffering of martyred
saints had created a reservoir of goodness,
similar to a bank deposit, that the faithful
could draw upon for a price and avoid the
torments of hell. The Franciscans and Do¬
minicans participated in selling indulgences,
thus alienating themselves from the inspira¬
tion of their founders. The orders had
become so corrupt that they were little
more than fund-raisers for themselves and
the papacy. Other clergy were also willing
to enter into money-making schemes for
personal enrichment.

The lay response to churchmen using
the money they raised to fund their own
opulent lifestyles was twofold. Criticism of
the lavish living mounted among the faith¬
ful, but some flocked to the papal court as
purveyors of fine merchandise or as suitors
for papal patronage. The correspondence
of Francesco de Marco Datini provides an
accurate picture of the luxury market and

the opportunities it presented to shrewd
businessmen. His orders to his partners in
Italy included “a panel of Our Lady on a
background of fine gold with two doors,
and a pedestal with ornaments and leaves,
handsome and the wood well carved, mak¬
ing a fine show, with good and handsome
figures by the best painter, with many
figures.” He was more of a merchant than
an art critic, for he added, “Let there be in
the center Our Lord on the Cross, or Our
Lady, whomsoever you find—I care not, so
that the figures be handsome and large, and
best and finest you can purvey.”

Others, such as Francesco Petrarch
(1304-1374), came to sell their poetry and
writing rather than goods. The son of a
Florentine notary, Petrarch studied law at
Montpellier and Bologna and then took
holy orders, moving to Avignon. Putting
aside his vocation as a priest, he wrote a
series of love sonnets in Italian to a woman
named Laura, who died in 1348, the plague
year. Denied the patronage that he sought
from Avignon, he became a severe critic of
the town. He wrote that Avignon was a
“fountain of anguish, the dwelling-place of

The Burgundian court played a lead¬
ing role in politics and in setting
aristocratic style in the 15th century .
The marriage of Duke Philip the
Good of Burgundy to Isabel of Portu¬
gal in 1430 was an occasion to
display beautiful dress and fine foods .
The wedding party was held outdoors
and men and women even brought
their falcons with them.

THE FOUR HORSEMEN OF THE APOCALYPSE • 131

Separated from Rome and its regular
income, the Avignon papacy began to
sell indulgences, or forgiveness of sins.
The assumption was that the sacrifice
of Christ and the saints had built up
a reservoir of salvation which the
Church could dispense by selling it to
the laity. One could buy forgiveness
for a specific sin or get a plenary in¬
dulgence that would cover all possible
sins. Even when the Church returned
to Rome, it continued to sell indul¬
gences, as this woodcut from the early
16th century indicates .

wrath, the school of errors, the temple of
heresy, once Rome, now the false
guilt-laden Babylon, the forge of lies, the
horrible prison, the hell on earth.”

Edward I of England and Philip IV of
France had challenged the pope and taxed
the clergy in order to carry on their political
struggles against each other. Edward, of
course, wanted to get back the French
territory that John I had lost a century
earlier, and Philip wanted to take from
Edward the territory he still held in south¬
ern France. The two monarchs, however,
did not engage in active warfare and, finally,
Edward married his son, the future Edward
II, to Isabelle, daughter of Philip.

War between the two countries did not
break out until the reign of their son,
Edward III (1327-1377). Edward Ill’s as¬
cent to the * throne was surrounded by
drama. His mother had taken him to France

to pay homage to the French king for the
English territory in France. Traveling with
young Edward and his mother was the
English baron Roger Mortimer. The three
of them made a plan to overthrow Edward
II. Young Edward married the daughter of
the count of Hainault, and, as a dowry, she
brought military help for the invasion of
England. Isabelle and Mortimer returned to
England and had Edward II killed after a
humiliating captivity. With the support of
Parliament, they declared Edward III king
and themselves as his regents. But Edward
III was an energetic young man. Collecting
a band of knights, he seized Isabelle and
hunted down her lover in their bedchamber.
He had Mortimer executed, but confined
his mother to a comfortable royal castle far
from the political scene.

Edward III embodied the ideals of me¬
dieval kingship. He was young, chivalrous,
intelligent, and an excellent warrior. He
fought in tournaments, sometimes anony¬
mously, and he reestablished King Arthur’s
Round Table and a chivalric order, a
group of nobles and knights selected by
the king, called the Knights of the Garter.
His love of warfare led him to pursue
aggressive relations with France. The ex¬
cuse for beginning what became known as
the Hundred Years’ War was that the
Capetian line had failed to produce a male
heir. Philip IV’s sons inherited in succes¬
sion, but they did not have male children.
This meant that Edward, as the grandson
of Philip through his mother, had a claim
to the French throne. The French could
not allow their ancient rival to take over
the throne of France, so they selected
another branch of the Capetian family, the

132 * THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

As a young man, Edward III of En¬
gland paid homage to Philip IV of
France for fiefs he held in France as a
vassal of the French King. Edward
wears a robe with the rampant lions
symbolic of the English king, and
Philip wears a robe with the fleur-de-
lis that was the symbol of France.

Valois. Nonetheless, Edward made him¬
self a new coat of arms by combining his
arms (the rampant lions) with the lilies of
France (fleurs de lys) and declared himself
king of France as well as England.

Another dispute that led to the war
involved the county of Flanders (part of
modem Belgium), which the French kings
claimed belonged to France. Flanders was
one of the wealthiest cloth-manufacturing
centers of Europe. Fine woolen cloth and
tapestries were woven and dyed there by

wage laborers who worked on heavy looms.
The wool for the cloth came mainly from
England, so the Flemish economy was
dependent on English wool. Edward saw a
way to get at the French by stirring up
trouble in Flanders. He encouraged the
Flemish weavers to revolt by withholding
the English wool from their markets. The
embargo worked, and the Flemish weavers
sided with the English against the French.
With trouble brewing in Flanders, Edward
launched his first campaigns.

ft Feast Ht For a King

m mm

Servants served food to the nobles , who sit with their tren¬
chers before them and with spoons to eat with. Musicians
created a lively party.

he dukes of Burgundy
in the 15th century
were renowned for
their feasts in honor of the
Order of the Golden
Fleece. The hall in which
the feasts were held mea¬
sured 140 feet by 70 feet.
The head table stood on a
dais at one end of the hall,
and two other tables ran
lengthwise down the out¬
side of the room, leaving
the center free for per¬
formers who provided
entertainment. A buffet
displayed gold and silver
plates and was used for
serving food and dispens¬
ing wine.

By preference, guests
sat on only one side of the
u-shaped table to facilitate
service and to allow each
person to see and be seen
by all. The order of seat¬
ing was important, with
each guest seated accord¬

ing to his or her rank.

The highest-ranking sat at
the head of the table.
Sometimes the dukes of
Burgundy ate from
silver-gilt plates, but gen¬
erally trenchers of
whole-wheat bread that
was several days old
served as plates. Trenchers
absorbed the sauces and
juices from the meal and
were distributed to the
poor after the feast. The
most prominent object on
the table was the salt cel¬
lar. In addition to the
trencher, each place was
set with a drinking vessel,
bowl, knife, and spoon.
Until the 15th century
when forks were intro¬
duced for upper-class use,
guests ate delicately with
their fingers.

A trumpet fanfare an¬
nounced the beginning
of the feast, with guests

entering by rank to take
part in the handwashing
ceremony. They held
their hands over a basin
while a page poured
herb-scented water over
their hands and then of¬
fered them a linen napkin.
The meals had a number
of courses, called mets, and
the activities between the
courses were the entremets,
or “sotelties” to the En¬
glish. At one Burgundian
feast, the entremet began
with the presentation of
30 pies, each enclosed in a
silk pavilion. When the
pies were opened, birds
popped out. They not
only began to sing but
also flew around the room
to the delight of the
guests. It is easy to see that
the nursery song about
four and twenty black¬
birds baked in a pie refers
to a medieval banquet.

THE FOUR HORSEMEN OF THE APOCALYPSE • 133

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Early in the Hundred Years' War
the English established their su¬
premacy on the seas at the Battle of
Sulys. Here, Edward Ill's son lands
in France. At the beginning of the
war, Edward claimed his inheritance
of the French throne and put the ram¬
pant lions of England with the French
jleur-de-lis on his shield and banner.
The English ships carry this banner.

In 1345 Edward landed an army in
Normandy and marched north toward
Flanders. The French king met Edward’s
army at Crecy in 1346 with a force that
outnumbered the English by two to one.
Fired with enthusiasm, the French at¬
tacked without resting from their march
or waiting for their footsoldiers to arrive.
Edward had the better position on a hill¬
top. He had his cavalry dismount, then
grouped them on the crest of the hill. He
flanked them with bowmen using the
longbow, which had been extremely ef¬
fective in the Welsh wars. The French
army had to charge uphill against a shower
of arrows that shot the horses out from
under them. Edward won this glorious
first battle, but all that he had to show for

a brilliant victory was the capture of the
port city of Calais.

After a truce—the Hundred Years’ War
was not fought continuously—England
launched another campaign in 1356. This
time the leader was Edward’s oldest son,
who was known as Edward the Black
Prince. At a famous battle at Poitiers, the
English used a similar tactic, and the French
suffered major losses. It was said at the time
that the French lost 2,000 knights and that
an equal number were captured and held
for ransom. Among those captured on the
batdefield was the French king, John. King
John spent the rest of his life in comfortable
imprisonment in England, while Iris ag¬
gressive heir dragged his feet about paying
a ransom for the return ofhis father. Instead,
the French prince took control of the
kingdom and harassed the English territory
in France.

These two major battles did little to
determine the course of the war, but they
did leave a legacy that marked a change in
the nature of warfare. They showed that the
heavily armed knight and pitched battles
had become obsolete. The foot soldier
armed with the English longbow, a cross¬
bow, or a pike was the soldier of the future.
The longbow was both accurate and easily
reloaded, so it could be used to create
raining volleys of arrows. The crossbow
was so powerful that it could penetrate
chain mail. To counter its force, armor was
made of plates with convex surfaces to
deflect arrows. Even horses were amiored
so that they could not be shot from under
their riders.

Compared to foot soldiers, knights with
such heavy armor lacked maneuverability

134 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

on the battlefield. Crossbows had the disad¬
vantage that their strings had to be cranked
before an arrow could be released. At close
quarters, foot soldiers with pikes were use¬
ful even against knights on horseback. A
pike had a long shaft, a cutting blade like an
ax, and a sharp knife like a spear on the end.
In modem terms, they are sometimes re¬
ferred to as “multipurpose can openers”—that
is, they could be used to pull a knight offhis
horse, spear the knight or his horse from
underneath, chop at a foe on the ground, or
form a barricade of pointed and sharp sur¬
faces to halt a cavalry charge.

The fact that foot soldiers rather than
knights won battles had major consequences
for social structure as well as for warfare.
Foot soldiers were recruited from the peas¬
antry and urban dwellers of Europe. They
were often violent men who had commit¬
ted crimes or impatient youths who wanted
to make a quick fortune or who preferred
excitement over the tedium of working as
apprentices or plowmen. They were mer¬
cenaries—that is, soldiers of fortune who
were paid to fight. When the pay ran out
between campaigns, their commanders kept
them together by having them pillage the
countryside. France was devastated by these
marauding mercenary armies. The English
ones raided French territory, and the French

ones raided the English-held territory in
France. When these resources were spent,
the mercenaries hired themselves out for
war in Spain or Italy.

The return of bubonic plague, absent
from Europe since the reign of Justinian in
the sixth century, devastated the popula¬
tion so thoroughly that warfare ceased. The
path of the plague to Europe can be traced
along the trade routes. In caravans carrying
silk and spices out of the East, the
plague-carrying fleas and their host rats
(ratus ratus or the common house rat) came
to the ports of the Black Sea. The cargoes
were loaded onto an Italian boat bound for
Venice in 1347. A terrible disease immedi¬
ately began killing the sailors and merchants
on board. Venice did not want the ship to
land there, so it touched at various other
ports in Italy, where the rats and fleas were
unloaded along with the cargo. The disease
spread rapidly to all of Italy and then pro¬
ceeded along trade routes until it had infected
most of Europe, both the urban and rural
areas. The disease had a curious pattern.
Some villages were decimated, whereas
others had no sickness whatever. The entire
region of Poland was skipped over in this
visitation of plague.

Unlike famine, plague claimed victims of
every social class. Peasants’ thatched roofs,

With no idea of what caused the
Black Death or how to cure it, reli¬
gious processions praying to God for
relief became common . But even the
pope, lifting his hands in supplica¬
tion , followed by his cardinals, could
not prevent several members of the
procession from falling to the ground
from the illness .

THE FOUR HORSEMEN OF THE APOCALYPSE • 135

The Battle of Poitiers was the sec¬
ond major defeat for the French in
the Hundred Years’ War. The En¬
glish longbowmen attacked the
French knights, first shooting horses
out from under them and creating
confusion on the field. The English
knights then went in and won the
battle, taking the French king and
many French nobles captive.

urban dwellers’ dirty ditches and streets,
castles’ moats and wells, and bishops’ and
cardinals’ palaces all had rats, and the fleas
that lived on these rats bit humans, spread¬
ing the bacterial infection. After an incubation
period of about two weeks, the infected
person suffered from buboes, or swellings of
the lymph nodes, and blood collected and
congealed under the skin, leaving black
patches. These symptoms gave the disease its
two names—bubonic plague and the Black
Death. In some urban areas, such as Florence
and London, about half of the population
died. In Europe as a whole perhaps a third of
the population succumbed.

This huge number of deaths occurred in
only two years. As a result, all of the normal
civilities and ceremonies for dealing with
death and dying had to be put aside. Priests

and members of the clergy who aided the
dying by giving them the rites of the Church
had a higher mortality than anyone else.
Doctors claimed that they could do noth¬
ing, and, indeed, about all they could do
was pierce the buboes. Very few patients
recovered. No one knew what caused the
disease. (Not until the 19th century was the
bacterium responsible for bubonic plague
discovered.) Some thought that the air was
heavy and polluted. Others believed that
the plague was the result of generally sinful
living, and therefore only prayers and mor¬
tification of the flesh would help. Among
these people were the flagellants, who went
about the countryside beating themselves.
Still others concluded that the plague spread
through contagion and tried to avoid infec¬
tion by closing themselves in castles or, like

136 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Francesco de Marco Datmi and his family,
fleeing from places that had plague. But
cities became wise to this maneuver and
refused entry to those coming from plague
areas. Artistic representations tended to
dwell on the death of the rich as well as the
poor, on decay, and on the horrors of hell.

Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), an
Italian poet, wrote about a fictional group
of Italian merchants and nobles who gath¬
ered in a castle to avoid contagion. They
agreed to entertain each other by telling
stories. Boccaccio’s masterpiece, II
Decamerone, is a collection of wonderful
medieval stories about love won and lost as
recited by these fictional characters. At the
beginning of the book, Boccaccio wrote a
vivid account of the Black Death as it
ravaged Florence:

The mortal pestilence then arrive[d]
in the excellent city of Florence,
which surpasses every other Italian
city in nobility. Whether through the
operations of the heavenly bodies, or
sent upon us mortals through our
wicked deeds by the just wrath of
God for our correction, the plague
had begun some years before in East¬
ern countries. ... It did not work as it
had in the East, where anyone who
bled from the nose had a manifest sign
of inevitable death. But in its early
stages both men, and women too, ac¬
quired certain swellings, either in the
groin or under the armpits. The swell¬
ings reached the size of a common
apple and others were as big as an egg,
some more or less. . . . Then the ap¬
pearance of the disease began to
change into black or livid blotches,
which showed up in many on the
arms or thighs and in every other part
of the body. . . . The evil was still
greater than this. Not only conversa¬

tion and contact with the sick carried
the illness to the healthy and was
cause of their common death, but
even to handle the clothing or other
things touched or used by the sick
seemed to carry with it that same dis¬
ease. . . . Such events and many others
similar to them . . . conjure up in
those who remain healthy diverse
fears and imaginings. . . . Almost all
were inclined to a very cruel purpose,
that is, to shun and to flee the sick and
their belongings. . . . Others were of a
contrary opinion. They affirmed that
heavy drinking and enjoyment, mak¬
ing the rounds with singing and good
cheer, the satisfaction of the appetite
with everything one could, and the
laughing and joking which derived
from this, were the most effective for
this great evil.

As the plague reappeared about every
20 years, people began to have theo¬
ries about the disease, including the
possibility that it was contagious.

They concluded that one way to stop
the disease was to remove the victims
from the city—in this case, the walled
Italian city of Sansepolero.

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THE FOUR HORSEMEN OF THE APOCALYPSE • 137

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John Ball , a priest, was one of the
leaders of the English peasant revolt of
1381. He preached a simple message
of egalitarianism: "When Adam
delved [dug] and Eve span } where
then were all the gentleman. ” He
asked why, if ourfirst parents culti¬
vated the earth and made cloth, some
people should now claim to be above
such work.

The Black Death had extraordinary so¬
cial and economic effects on Europe, perhaps
the most dramatic of which occurred in
England. The peasants there realized that
the decreased supply of labor and the in¬
creased demand for it allowed them to
charge higher wages and to refuse the heavy
work burdens imposed by the lords under
the manorial system. The king and his
nobles also saw the implications of a re¬
duced workforce and passed the Ordinance
of Laborers in 1349 (made into law as the
Statute of Laborers in 1351 by the House of
Commons) in an attempt to freeze the
prices of labor and products at the 1347
level. Like all price and wage freezes, it did
not work and caused a great deal of resent¬
ment among the laboring population.

Similarly, in other areas ofEurope, peas¬
ants and laborers saw that they could charge
more for their labor because there were
fewer of them. But, as in England, when
they tried to take advantage of the situation

they discovered that the upper class had
passed laws to keep them as serfs or poorly
paid wage laborers. The possibility of free¬
dom from serfdom played itself out
differently from country to country. In
France in 1358 the peasants and the urban
inhabitants revolted against a tax on salt
levied on every person to finance the war
with England. Furthermore, their agricul¬
ture and trade were being devastated by the
war of attrition. The peasant revolt was
called the Jacquerie after the name Jacques,
which was used as a generic term for all
peasants. The peasants formed a coalition
with the middle class of Paris and had a
short-lived success, but the king defeated
them. The bloody repression of the peas¬
antry that followed discouraged revolt for
centuries to come in France.

The Revolt of 1381 in England was
equally ineffectual, but by that time changes
in the relationship between the lords and
the peasantry were already underway. En¬
forcement of the Statute of Laborers was
impossible because peasants simply left their
manors and sought wage-paying jobs else¬
where. But the cause of the revolt in En¬
gland was similar to that of the Jacquerie in
France. Earlier in the 14th century, the En¬
glish had been paying taxes at irregular
intervals on the value of their moveable
goods such as plows, grain, and animals.
Because the wealthy had more goods, they
were taxed more heavily than the poor. But
in the 1370s and 1380s taxes were due more
frequently and were levied equally on ev¬
eryone over the age of 14 in the form of a
poll tax, or a tax paid by each person. This
meant that the rich paid little tax but the
poor were devastated by taxes.

13 8 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

When the king’s tax collectors did not
bring in enough money in 1380, they
correctly suspected widespread evasion and
started collecting taxes again in 1381. A
group of peasants in Essex, a county just
north of London, killed several of the
collectors, and the revolt spread rapidly
throughout England. Some of the peasants
marched on London under the leadership
of Wat Tyler, John Ball, and Jack Straw.
There they killed the king’s advisors and
destroyed the palace of the king’s uncle.
Richard II, the grandson of Ed ward III and
a boy of only 15 years, responded by agree¬
ing to meet with the peasant leaders. Leading
them outside the walls of London, he lis¬
tened to their demands for an end to serfdom.
When one of his followers drew a sword
and killed Wat Tyler, Richard had the
presence ofmind to ride boldly forward and
tell the rebels that he was their leader. He
promised them charters of freedom if they
would go back to their homes. Richard
broke his promise of freedom and sent out
his royal justices to round up the ringleaders
of the revolt and hanged them.

The Revolt of 1381 had little impact on
the gradual disappearance of serfdom in
England. The peasants continued to pay
rent for the land they cultivated, but they no
longer paid for the marriage of their daugh¬
ters, for their sons to leave the manor, or for
doing work on the lord’s property. These
and all other fines and burdens that had
been the mark of serf status were abolished.

But in Poland, Spain, and some other
parts of Europe, the 15 th century brought
more repression rather than less. In these
areas the response of lords to the decreased
labor supply was to bind the peasants more

closely to the manors and limit their free¬
dom ofmovement. Peasants were, therefore,
forced into more restrictive serfdom than
they had known previously.

The disruption of plague and changes in
the population also led urban workers to
revolt. In Florence, which was a very im¬
portant center for the production of luxury
woolen cloth, the workers rose up in the
Ciompi revolt of1378 when manufacturers
tried to lower their wages. Cloth workers
also revolted in Flanders in the 14th cen¬
tury. But like the Revolt of 1381 and the
Jacquerie, these revolts failed.

The 14th century was not, however, all
famine, war, and disease. Some of the
greatest authors of all time lived during this
century. Vernacular literature—poetry and
prose written in the common tongue rather
than in Latin—became fashionable. More
people, both men and women, learned to
read in their own languages.

Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) was the
great predecessor ofPetrarch and Boccaccio
in writing in Italian. He grew up in Flo¬
rence, but was exiled when Boniface VIII
stirred up a revolt there. Retiring to the
countryside, he began to write poetry and
essays. One of his essays dealt with the need
for a literary Italian that would be equiva¬
lent to French, which had already been
accepted as a language for literature. Dante
proceeded to write poetry in the Italian that
was close to his own Florentine dialect. His
greatest work in Italian was the Commedia,
or the Divine Comedy. It is an epic of a
personal travel through the circles of hell
that concludes with a beatific vision of God.
Not surprisingly, devils eagerly awaited
Boniface VIII in the lowest pit of hell, and

Dante, shown here with a laurel leaf
crown in imitation of the Roman cus¬
tom for heroes, was the first great
writer in the Italian language. His
most famous book is the Divine
Comedy, but he wrote essays on
politics and language and other po¬
ems. He was politically active in
Florence, taking the side of the em¬
peror over that of the pope.

THE FOUR HORSEMEN OF THE APOCALYPSE • 139

Christine de Pisan mote about the
virtues of women in the late 14th and
early 15th centuries. She argued
against other authors of the time who
claimed that women were inferior to
men . She also translated one of the
major ancient authorities on warfare.
A manuscript illustration from one of
her books shows two lords seated with
their entourage.

when Dante reached heaven, St. Peter
encouraged him to speak about the degen¬
eration of the papacy.

In England the greatest author was
Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1342-1400). Chaucer
was born in London, and the English that
he wrote reflects the rich mixture of Old
English and French that was used in the
capital and that became the basis for stan¬

dard English. Pronouncing the words aloud
makes his language more comprehensible:

Whan that Aprille with his shoures soote
The droghte of March hath perced to
the roote.

And bathed every veyne in swich licour.
Of which vertu engendred is the flour ....

Chaucer served as a diplomat for King
Richard II and traveled extensively on the
Continent, where he became familiar with
the works of French and Italian authors,
particularly Boccaccio. Although Chaucer
wrote many poems, his Canterbury Tales
is certainly the best known. Using
Boccaccio’s device of having a group of
storytellers link a series of tales together,
Chaucer selected a cast of characters that
included a knight and his son, a squire, a
prioress, a monk, a friar, a student, and
other clerical types, some urban dwellers
and some country folk. The stories vary
from highly edifying narratives to humor¬
ous tales of sex and scandal.

Christine de Pisan (1364—c. 1440) was
Chaucer’s contemporary. Her father had
come from Italy and served as a court
astrologer. He educated his daughter in
Latin as well as French. When her husband
died, leaving her a young widow with
children to raise, she turned to translating
texts, including an ancient work on war¬
fare, and writing poetry for patrons. Among
her books was The City of Ladies, in which
she discussed heroic and learned women
from the past who could serve as role
models for contemporary young women. It
also showed that the prevalent view ofboth
lay and clerical writers on the female nature
was biased against women. The male au-

140 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

thors of the Middle Ages classified women
as either resembling the Virgin Mary or
Eve. Needless to say, most women were
portrayed as Eve—given to lust and inca¬
pable of ruling themselves.

The production of art was also taking a
new turn. Architecture, sculpture, and
stained glass windows had previously been
commissioned by the Church for public
consumption. The miniatures that illus¬
trated prayer books and other texts were the
only works of art that were made solely for
more private enjoyment. But in the 14th
and 15th centuries, pious people began to
commission works of art including illus¬
trated books, altarpieces, and even portraits
for their own use. Datini was typical of
those who provided artwork for private
consumption. He brought paintings and
carvings from Italy to sell in Avignon.

During this period, Italian art was head¬
ing in new directions with the introduction
of the technique of bronze casting. An early
master ofbronze sculpture, Donatello made
an equerry statue of a Venetian general
showing him fully armed as a Roman
soldier sitting on a horse posed with one of
its legs raised. But most striking in Italian art
were the frescoes, or paintings on the plaster
of church walls.

Paintings and sculptures also more real¬
istically depicted their subjects. This
movement toward realism predated the
strong influence of classical art that charac¬
terized the Renaissance. In Flanders a
northern European style became popular
and spread to England, Norway, Sweden,
and Germany. Jan van Eyck was noted for
his realistic portraits, and a number of other

artists contributed to a particular style of
Flemish painting and carving.

Warfare did not interfere with the de¬
velopment of art, architecture, and literature.
The Hundred Years’ War was one ofphases
rather than continuous fighting. In the
beginning of the 15th century, however,
the war once again became a serious matter.
Henry V (1387-1422) had dreams of re¬
peating the glories of the battle ofCrecy and
the heroism of Edward Ilfs reign. The king
of France had bouts of insanity and could
not control the factious nobles who divided
the realm, presenting Henry with an op¬
portunity to attack. When Henry landed
with about 10,000 troops in Normandy,
the French responded with the same tactics
that they had used at Crecy, with the same
disastrous results. Meeting the English at
Agincourt in 1415, the French knights
charged right into the volley of arrows
from the English longbowmen and suffered
defeat. The French, already politically di¬
vided, made a disadvantageous treaty with
Henry at Troyes in 1420. Under this treaty
the heir to the throne of France, the Dauphin
(prince) Charles, was declared illegitimate
and ineligible to inherit the throne. Henry
married the Dauphin’s sister Catherine, and
the treaty stipulated that their child would
inherit the thrones of both England and
France. The dream of Edward III—who
had decorated his shield with the lions of
England and the fleurs-de-liys of France—
became a reality when Henry VI
(1421-1471) of England and France was
bom.

Holding on to the territory of France,
however, was a problem. Henry V died

young, when Henry VI was only an infant.
An alliance between the English and the
dukes of Burgundy, who now ruled
Flanders, was met with deepening hostility
among the French population. An amazing
series of events ultimately drove the English
from France. Dauphin Charles was only 15
when he fled south after the battle of
Agincourt. In maturity he was a weak-willed
man, who accepted the implications of the
Treaty of Troyes that he was a bastard. A
young peasant girl, Joan of Arc, is credited
with giving him the courage to act as a real
king of France. Although a woman and of
peasant origins, she dressed in the armor of
a knight and went to see Charles. His
fortunes were so low that he was willing to
listen to this strange girl who claimed to
have heard the voices of saints telling her to
rescue France. Under her guidance the
course of the war changed. Orleans, one of
France’s major cities, was rescued from
siege, and Charles was officially crowned
king of the French. Joan, however, was
captured and burned as a heretic in 1431.
To King Charles’s shame, he made no
attempt to rescue his benefactress. The
French, however, continued to fight the
long battle to defeat the English. By 1453
the Hundred Year’s War finally ended. Of
the English Angevin Empire, only the port
city of Calais was left.

By the time of the defeat, England was
embroiled in civil wars, which have be¬
come known as the Wars of the Roses.
Henry Vi’s insanity contributed to a dynas¬
tic fight among the descendants of Edward
III and Philippa. The successive dukes of
York, whose family badge was a white rose.

THE FOUR HORSEMEN OF T H E A P 0 C A L Y P S E * 141

Joan of Arc: Peasant Girl Saves France

Joan of Arc favored armor and male attire, but medieval
artists found this so repulsive that they represented her in
female dress.

M uch of what is

known about Joan
of Arc comes from
her testimony at her trial
for heresy in 1431. She
was bom in the village of
Domremy in eastern
France. Her father was a
well-to-do peasant, but
she was not literate. Her
early life included games,
sewing, spinning, and
prayers.

But this tranquil life
was periodically inter¬
rupted by incursions of
Burgundians who looted
the countryside. During
these attacks, the local
people went to fortified
cities for safety. Accord¬
ing to her trial transcript,
Joan began having vi¬
sions that urged her to
make an appeal to King
Charles and rescue
France from the
Burgundians and the En¬
glish: “Two or three
times a week the voice
said she must leave and
go into France . . . she
must raise the siege then
being made of the city of
Orleans.” She persuaded
one of the king’s captains
that she was serious, and
he gave her a suit of

armor and an escort to
Charles. She convinced
him to give her troops to
attack the city’s besiegers.
She herself did not fight,
but she provided encour¬
agement and the siege
was relieved.

After this success in
warfare, she encouraged
Charles to go to Rheims
and have himself properly
crowned king as the
French kings before him
had done. The French
gained new resolve from
this move and continued
to fight against the En¬

glish and Burgundians.
Joan was captured by the
Burgundians and the En¬
glish had her put on trial
for witchcraft and heresy
in a Burgundian church
court. After a vigorous
self-defense she finally
confessed but took back
her confession. She was
burned in the public
square in 1431. Charles
did nothing to defend or
rescue her. Although she
immediately became the
symbol of resistance for
France, she was not made
a saint until 1923.

claimed the throne by virtue of the third son
of Edward III. The Lancastrians also main¬
tained they had a right to the crown because
they descended from the fourth son of
Edward III and their line included Henry V
and his son Henry VI. (Popular custom
assigned the red rose to this party.) The wars
were fought largely between contenders
for the throne and their noble adherents.
During their course, such notable charac¬
ters as the Yorkist Richard III emerged as
historical figures. His claim to the throne

was encumbered by two young nephews
who were in direct succession before
him. When they disappeared into The
Tower of London, he was accused of
having them murdered. Finally, in 1485
Henry Tudor defeated Richard at the
battle of Bosworth Field. He became
Henry VII, the founder of the Tudor
dynasty. Richard fought gallantly to the
end and died on the battlefield. In his play
Richard III) Shakespeare was certainly
wrong in portraying him as a coward who
in his final moments called out, “A horse,
a horse. My kingdom for a horse.”

Throughout this period the Church pro¬
vided little political or spiritual leadership.
The popes continued to live in Avignon,
but the critics of the papacy were becoming
more and more insistent. Two women
who eventually became saints, Brigitte of
Sweden and Catherine of Siena, urged the
popes to reform and return to Rome.
Political theorists at universities were argu¬
ing that the Church should be governed by
a council composed of laymen as well as
clergy. They also maintained that the pa¬
pacy should not be the dominant power in
the religion or politics of Europe.

Even more serious were the attacks of
John Wycliffe (c. 1330-1384), an ordained
priest and professor at Oxford University.
Increasingly, he argued that the papacy was
corrupt and deviated from the early Church.
He placed his belief in the authority of the
Bible rather than the later pronounce¬
ments of popes, and he favored direct
prayer rather than reliance on priests to
intervene between Christ and Christians.
His theology was so radical that he quickly

142 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

came to be regarded as a heretic. Because
he felt that the clergy should experience
the poverty of the early apostles, he recom¬
mended the confiscation of church property.
This position won favor at the English
royal court, and he was protected from
prosecution.

Wycliffe soon won followers in England,
but more important were the students who
brought his ideas from Oxford University to
Prague University. In Prague Jan Hus, a
young theologian, became attracted to
Wycliffe's ideas and began to make them
popular with the laity as well as the university
community. His movement became tied up
in politics and the revolt of the Bohemians
(Czechs) against their German rulers.

While the theological attacks and popu¬
lar lampoons against the papacy continued,
the papacy became more and more mired
in corruption. In 1378 Pope Gregory XI
returned to Rome at the urging of Catherine
of Siena, but he died that same year. Pres¬
sured by a Roman mob that broke into the
voting chamber, the College of Cardinals
selected an Italian pope. With the encour¬
agement of the French king, the cardinals
returned to Avignon and elected a French
pope. Neither pope would abdicate, and
the Great Schism began with a pope in
Rome and a pope in Avignon. When these
popes died, their respective Colleges of
Cardinals selected another pope in each of
their places.

Needless to say, the scandal of the Great
Schism was immense. St. Peter could hardly
have two voices on earth offering compet¬
ing jurisdictions. The laity were concerned
that since the schism no one had gone to

heaven and baptisms were no longer re¬
moving original sin. With resources spread
between the two popes, papal fundraising
became even more voracious.

Finally, in 1409 a council was held in
Pisa to resolve the schism. The council was
intended to depose the two popes and elect
a new one, but neither pope would abdi¬
cate. The third pope claimed that he was
the only legitimate one because the Coun¬
cil of Pisa had elected him. With three
popes and three colleges of cardinals, it was
apparent that the Church could not reform
itself Emperor Sigismund of Germany called
a council at Constance representing laity
and clergy from all over Europe to resolve
the schism, reform the Church, and get rid
of heresy.

The Council of Constance managed to
depose all three popes and elect an Italian
pope who was acceptable to Rome and a
newly formed College of Cardinals. The
Council next turned to the question of Jan
Hus. He was given safe conduct to
Constance in order to defend his views.
Thinking that he would receive a fair hear¬
ing because the Council was dedicated to
reform, he came of his free will. Emperor
Sigismund, however, had little sympathy
for him because he had been at the heart of
the Bohemian revolt. Hus was tried as a
heretic and burned. Even Wycliffe was
condemned, and his bones were dug up and
burned. Having solved the two easier prob¬
lems, the Council disbanded without taking
up the larger problem of church reform.

One of the distinctive features of the
earlier Church had been that new monastic
movements took the lead in reforming the

Medieval urban residents often did
not have a kitchen in their quarters
and relied on the equivalent of fast
food. ” Two men moved an oven on a
cart around the city and a woman
made fresh bread and meat pies for
customers. Other women sold pre¬
pared goods outside of shops. The
shop sign shows that pretzels were
available and the table indicates the
availability of beer or wine (in the
flask) and loaves of bread.

THE FOUR HORSEMEN OF THE APOCALYPSE • 143

Catherine of Siena: The Saint
who Confronted the Pope

om in 1347,

Catherine of Siena
was the 24th child of
a wool-dyer and his wife.
Living just down the hill
from a Dominican
church, Catherine resisted
all her parents’ efforts to
persuade her to lead a
normal life and marry.
Early on she instead em¬
braced self-sacrifice in
order to show her devo¬
tion to God. She scalded
herself in hot baths, de¬
veloped skin problems,
and withdrew from her
family. She fasted and re¬
jected meat entirely. She
was, perhaps, anorexic,
because her biographer
reported seeing her stuff
twigs down her throat to
bring up food. He wrote:
“I myself saw it happen,
not once, but again and

again, that her emaciated
body would be reduced
to the last extremity, un¬
able to take anything to
restore its forces but a
drink of cold water . . .
and then suddenly she
would seize ... an oppor¬
tunity of taking on some
work for the honor of
God’s name or the good
of souls, and like a flash,
without the help of any
other restorative [food] . . .
all her forces would re¬
vive.” She said in her
letters that she was afflicted
by God so that she would
understand suffering and
be purged of her gluttony.

Catherine kept a close
association with the Do¬
minicans all her life but
did not become a nun.

She preferred to go out
into the world and work

with the poor and sick.
On one occasion she an¬
gered her father by giving
away his best wine, but
the cask was miraculously
refilled. Catherine was
educated and wrote ex¬
tensively in Italian. Her
works include 400 letters
and a dialogue about her
mystical experiences. In
the dialogue God pro¬
vided answers to a
Christian soul about ques¬
tions regarding reform of
the Church and salvation
of souls. In 1376 she went
to Avignon and helped
persuade the pope to re¬
turn to Rome.
Unfortunately, his return
led to the Great Schism,
which was in progress
when in 1380 Catherine
died from a stroke at the
age of 33.

Church, but the 14th and 15th centuries
saw no such internal reforms. The laity
were no less religious than they had been in
earlier centuries, but now they sought their
salvation through personal spiritual exer¬
cises. They joined guilds in their parish that
supported charity and funeral services for
their members and said prayers for the souls
of dead brothers and sisters. They also went
on pilgrimages and followed personal de¬
votions that imitated the life of Christ.
While much of the wealth that people
accumulated in the 15th century did go
toward supporting religious projects, their
funds were more likely to be given to a
parish church and spent on personal devo¬

tions than offered to the papacy. Wycliffe
and Hus had spoken for the larger laity
when they suggested that the Bible rather
the pope be a guide rather the pope.

By the 15th century the Bible had been
translated into the vernacular languages.
The invention of the printing press made
the Bible even more available to an increas¬
ingly literate laity. The use of paper was
perhaps as important as the invention of
moveable, metal type. Parchment, a prod¬
uct made from sheepskin, was laborious to
prepare and, therefore, very expensive.
Paper, which was invented in China, de¬
creased the costs ofbook production because
even rags could be used to make it. The use
of the printing press (whose design was
derived from the wine press) and type also
made books cheaper to produce. Johann
Gutenberg published the Bible in about
1455 as one of the first printed books. As
printing shops became common, transla¬
tions of the Bible, grammar books, and
works of literature soon became available
throughout Europe.

Another invention, the cannon, played a
decisive role in the fall of the last vestige of
the old Roman Empire. In 1453
Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks.
The Turks had surrounded the city after
taking the territory of Asia Minor (modem
Turkey) before moving into the Balkans and
Greece. Finally, only the great walled city
stood as a symbol of the power of the Roman
Empire. Using cannons, which had first been
experimented with dunng sieges in the
Hundred Years’ War, and other siege en¬
gines, the Turks forced the city to surrender,
and Constantinople became the Moslem

144 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

The Biblia Latina was published
about 1455 by Johann Gutenberg
and Johan Fust in Mainz, Germany.
Gutenberg was a goldsmith who ex¬
perimented with moveable metal type
and a printing press . This Latin Bible
was printed on vellum (treated
calfskin) rather than paper and was il¬
luminated by hand in the manner of
medieval manuscripts.

city of Istanbul. The fall of Constantinople
seemed cataclysmic to Europeans, who had
regarded themselves as part of the long con¬
tinuum of Roman traditions and political
life. Now this was broken, and a distant
power, Muscovy, claimed to be the Third
Rome. The new rulers called themselves
caesars, or “tsars” in Russian. The patriarch
of Moscow replaced the patriarch of
Constantinople as the chief official of the
Orthodox Church.

For all the major calamities, there was also
an irrepressible feeling of opportunity during
the 14th and 15th centuries. The vernacular
languages made literature and learning avail¬
able to a greater number of people, and the
printing press allowed more people to own
and read books. People exploited new ways
of satisfying their desires—some by being
more aggressive as traders, others by eating
better because there were fewer mouths to
feed, or by dressing in more luxurious cloth
because it was more readily available. Still
others built larger, more spacious homes.

The emphasis on individual salvation
seemed to spill over into the possibilities of
individual achievements. Inventions sug¬
gested new horizons. Perhaps even the fall of
Constantinople suggested a new need to
know what was beyond Europe in all direc¬
tions. Befitting this climate of curiosity and
optimism, the 15th century closed with the
beginnings of an age of exploration, includ¬
ing Portuguese explorations around the coast
of Africa and the discovery of the continents
in the west (the Americas) by Christopher
Columbus. Once again, Europe was ex¬
panding its horizons as it had done in the
11th century.

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THE FOUR HORSEMEN OF THE APOCALYPSE • 145

Chronology

300

Franks and Alamans settle on the Rhine

303

Emperor Diocletian issues edict persecuting
Christians

313

Emperor Constantine converts to Christian¬
ity at the Battle of Milvian Bridge and grants
toleration to Christians

325

Council of Nicaea rejects Arianism and issues
Nicene Creed

330

Emperor Constantine moves capital of Ro¬
man Empire to Constantinople (former site
of Greek town of Byzantium)

342-348

Ulfilas translates the New Testament into
Gothic and becomes a missionary; converts
the Goths to the Arian heresy.

360

Huns invade Europe

364

The Roman Empire is divided along the
Danube into western and eastern halves

378

Visigoths, settled within borders of Eastern
Empire, defeat the Byzantine army

386-420

St. Jerome translates the Bible into Latin

400 and thereafter

Franks, Alamans, Burgundians and Vandals
cross Rhine into Gaul; Vandals move on to
Spain

401

Visigoths, under leadership of Alaric, invade
Italy

406

Burgundians found kingdom on the Rhone

410

Visigoths sack Rome

Roman legions withdraw from England

416

Visigoths invade Spain

G. 420

St. Augustine writes The City of God

433-453

Attila leads the Huns in their attacks on
Europe

440-461

Pope Leo I persuades Attila not to attack
Rome

C. 450

Saxons, Angles, and Jutes invade Britain

455

Vandals sack Rome

C.471-526

Theodoric reigns as king of the Ostrogoths
and invades Italy in 488

476

The Western Roman Empire comes to an
end

480-524

Boethius, a Roman in the service of
Theodoric, writes The Consolation of Philoso¬
phy in prison before his execution

C. 475

Apollinaris Sidonius, a Roman bishop, writes
letters to his fellow Romans in Gaul

510

Clovis, king of the Franks, converts to Chris¬
tianity

146 • THE MIDDLE ABES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

511

Clovis dies and the Merovingian kingdom in
France is divided among his sons

527-565

Justinian I, the Great, and his wife Theodora
(d. 548) rule the Byzantine Empire, commis¬
sion the CodexJustinianus, build Hagia Sophia,
and finance military campaigns to regain the
Western Empire

529

St. Benedict founds monastery at Mt. Cassino
in Italy

537

Arthur, semi-legendary king of the Britons,
killed in battle

539-562

War between Persia and the Byzantine Em¬
pire ends in victory for the Byzantines

540

Cassiodorus founds a monastery to copy
manuscripts

542

Plague in the western Europe and the Byzan¬
tine Empire

568-572

Lombards invade and conquer northern Italy

596

Pope Gregory 1, the Great, dispatches mis¬
sionaries to England

610-632

Muhammad hears the word of God and
recounts it to his followers; Islam is born

622

Muhammad emigrates to Medina (the Hegira),
marking the advent of the Islamic calendar

624

Muhammad’s followers defeat Meccans.
Arabs unify under Islam

632

Arabic expansion into the Byzantine Empire
begins

643-711

Arabs take possession of North Africa

664

Synod of Whitby unites Christians of En¬
gland under the Pope, ending the strong Irish
influence

714

Charles Martel becomes mayor of the palace
under the Merovingians

717-18

Constantinople repulses major Arabic attack

730

Venerable Bede completes ecclesiastical his¬
tory of England

732

Charles Martel stops Arabic expansion in the
west at the Battle of Tours and Poitiers

751

Pepin the Short becomes king of the Franks
(first of the Carolingian dynasty)

768

Charles the Greatbecomes king of the Franks

790

Alcuin becomes head of the Frankish court
school

Golden period of Arabic learning in Baghdad
during reign of Harun al-Rashid

787

Vikings begin their attacks on England

787

Vikings attack monastery of Lindisfarne

800

Pope Leo III crowns Charlemagne emperor

Irene rules in Byzantium

Harun al-Rashid sends an embassy to court of
Charlemagne

Development of “Carolingian” minuscule
writing

814

Charlemagne dies and his son, Louis the
Pious, becomes king

825

Swedish Vikings establish bases on the Volga
and Dnieper rivers in Russia and trade with
Constantinople

835

Danes begin their attacks on England

840

Louis the Pious dies and divides his empire
among his three sons: Lothair, Louis the
German, and Charles the Bald

840

Norwegians attack Ireland and found Dublin

842

Louis the German and Charles the Bald swear
oath in each other’s language: first written
example of German and French

843

Treaty of Verdun divides the Carolingian
Empire among Lothair (middle kingdom and
title of emperor), Louis the German (eastern,
German speaking part), and Charles the Bald
(western, French speaking part)

846

Arabs sack Rome and pillage southern coast
of France

860

Danes invade England and France

862

Rus state is established at Novgorod

CHRONOLOGY • 147

863

The missionary Cyril develops Cyrilic alphabet

874

Alfred becomes king of Wessex

874

Vikings occupy Iceland

886

Alfred defeats Danes and recognizes bound¬
ary of Danelaw

Vikings attack Paris

G. 890

Magyars attack Central Europe

900

Feudal system begins to develop

910

Duke of Aquitaine establishes monastery of
Cluny

911

Car olingian line ends in Germany; Carolingian
king in France gives Danes the province of
Normandy

G. 937

Roswitha of Gandersheim (Germany) is bom;
becomes nun and playwright

962

Otto I, the Great, revives the empire in
Germany, crowned emperor by pope

987

Last Carolingian on French throne is suc¬
ceeded by Hugh Capet, first of the Capetian
dynasty

988

Vladimir ofKiev marries a Byzantine princess
and converts to Christianity

999

Gerbert of Aurillac becomes Pope Sylvester II

C. 1000

Norwegian Vikings reach North American
coast

1016

Danish conqueror Canute becomes king of
England and Norway

1020

Venice, Genoa, and Pisa emerge as powerful
cities in Italy

C. 1025

Romanesque architecture reaches its height

1035

William the Bastard becomes duke of
Normandy

1054

Great Schism occurs between Rome and
Constantinople.

1059

A papal decree announces that all future
popes will be elected by the College of
Cardinals

1065

Henry IV of Germany becomes king

1066

Edward, king of England, dies; William of
Normandy launches successful invasion of
England, becoming king

1073

Gregory VII (the monk Hildebrand) be¬
comes pope

1076

Gregory VII excommunicates Henry IV

1077

Henry IV travels to Canossa as a penitent

1091

Normans conquer Sicily

1095

Pope Urban II preaches the First Crusade

1096

First Crusade begins

1099

Crusaders take Jerusalem and establish the
Latin Kingdom ofjersualem

1100

William Rufus dies and Henry I becomes
king of England

1115

St. Bernard founds Clairvaux monastery

1119

Bologna University is established

1120

Scholastic philosophy becomes fully devel¬
oped

Troubadour poetry and music develop

1122

Concordat of Worms settles the Investiture
Controversy

1137

Louis VII of France ascends the throne

1142

Peter Abelard, scholastic philosopher, who
wrote letters to Heloise, Sic et Non , and The
History of My Misfortunes , dies

1147-1149

Second Crusade fails

1150

University of Paris is established

1152

Louis VII and Eleanor of Aquitaine divorce
and she marries Henry (II) of England

1154

Henry II ascends throne of England

1 4 B • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

1160

Vernacular literature develops

1162

Frederick I Barbarossa destroys Milan

1167

Frederick I Barbarossa is crowned emperor

1170

Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, is
murdered by knights of Henry II

1173

Waldensian movement begins in Lyons

1179

Hildegard of Bingen, writer of music, medi¬
cal tracts, and mystical works, dies

1169-1192

Richard I of England, Philip II Augustus of
France, and Frederick I Barbarossa of Ger¬
many lead the Third Crusade

1198-1216

Pontificate of Innocent III marks height of
medieval papacy

1202-04

Crusaders defeats Byzantine Empire and take
Constantinople in Fourth Crusade

1207- 08

Order of St. Francis is formed

1208- 29

Crusade against the Albigensian heretics

1209

Cambridge University is founded

1215

King John I of England is defeated at the
Battle of Runnymede and signs the Magna
Carta

Innocent III calls the Fourth Lateran Council
to reform the Church

1217-54

St. Louis leads unsuccessful crusades

1220

Frederick II is crowned Emperor of Ger¬
many; he is also king of Sicily

1228

Frederick II makes treaty with Moslems on a
crusade in Holy Land

1233

Pope Gregory IX begins Inquisition for trial
of Albigensian heretics

1265

Simon de Montfort calls Parliament in En¬
gland: first time representatives oflords, knights
and burgesses meet in two houses

1273

Thomas Aquinas writes Summa Theologica

Rudolph of Hapsburg is elected Emperor of
Germany

1282

Sicilians revolt against Charles of Anjou in the
Sicilian Vespers

1291

Swiss cantons form Swiss Confederation

1292

Marco Polo returns to Italy from China

1302

Philip IV the Fair convenes first Estates Gen¬
eral in France at which all three estates (nobility,
clergy, and commoners) are represented

Boniface VIII fights with Edward I of En¬
gland and Philip IV over taxing clergy

1305

Clement V becomes pope and moves the
papacy to Avignon

C. 1321

Dante completes the Divine Comedy

1337

Outbreak of the Hundred Years’ War be¬
tween England and France

1348-53

Boccaccio writes The Decameron

1348-50

Black Death or bubonic plague peaks

1358

Revolt of French peasants, the Jacquerie

1378

Great Schism in papacy begins with two
popes

1381

Peasants’ Revolt in England

C. 1387

Chaucer begins The Canterbury Tales

1414-18

Council of Constance ends Great Schism and
pope returns to Rome

Jan Hus is burned as a heretic

1415

Henry V defeats French at Agincourt

1431

Joan of Arc is burned at Rouen

C. 1450

Invention of printing and moveable type

1453

Hundred Years’ War ends
Constantinople falls to Turks

1485

Henry Tudor defeats Richard III at Battle of
Bosworth Field and starts the Tudor line as
Henry VII

1492

Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain finance the
voyage of Christopher Columbus

CHRONOLOGY • 149

archbishop—a bishop in charge of a
province that includes a number of bish¬
ops and their dioceses. He also exercises
ecclesiastical law and authority in his
own diocese.

Arianism—the belief that Christ was of a
different substance from God and that
they should not be worshiped as equal.
Based on the teachings of Arius, a priest
in Alexandria, the Arianist movement of
the late 3rd and 4th centuries gained a
considerable following. Arianism was de¬
clared a heresy at the Council of Nicaea
in 325.

Black Death—the bubonic plague that
appeared in the 6th and the 14th centu¬
ries in Europe. This bacterial disease
was spread by the bite of a flea that
lived on the common house rat. The
signs of the disease were swellings
(bubos) and the clotting of blood under
the skin, giving the appearance of black
blotches and hence the name, Black
Death. (There was also a pneumonic
variety of the disease.)

baptism—a cleansing ritual that among
Christians symbolizes the washing away
of the original sin of Adam and Eve in
their defiance of God’s commands. John
the Baptist is traditionally credited with
having baptized Jesus. In the Middle
Ages, infant baptism was most com¬
mon, but during the period of conver¬
sions, Clovis, King of the Franks, and
many other converts received baptism
as adults.

canon law—laws or rules regarding
ecclesiastical doctrine and practice. In
the Middle Ages, it was based on
scripture, church councils, rules of
religious orders, and, in the Roman
Catholic Church, papal decrees. The
body of canon law was organized and
collected by Gratian (who died in 140),
an Italian legal scholar whose work is
known as the Decretum.

Catholic, catholic—with a capital C, the
word refers to the Roman Catholic
Church; with a lowercase c, it refers to
something universal or general. The Ro¬
man Catholic Church used catholic and

the Eastern Orthodox Church used or¬
thodox to refer to the universality of their
religious doctrines and to their religious
correctness.

cathedral—the main church of a diocese;
the church of a bishop or archbishop.
Cathedrals tended to be larger than other
churches and are some of the most fa¬
mous architectural remains of the
Middle Ages. The cathedra was the
bishop’s chair.

Codex Justianus —a collection of Roman
laws and decrees that governed commer¬
cial transactions, criminal law, and the
relationship of the emperor to the
people. The Codex Justianus, properly
called the Corpus Juris Civilis, was com¬
missioned by the Byzantine emperor Jus¬
tinian in the 6th century. It fomied the
basis of western European commercial
law when it was brought west and
widely studied in the 12th century. In
addition to the Codex, Justinian’s jurists
also compiled a book of jurisprudence
called the Digest.

commitatus —the fighting unit of the Ger¬
manic tribes described by Roman histo¬
rian Tacitus in the first century a.d. Each
commitatus had a leader who, because of
his success in battle, was able to surround
himself with armed fighters. They were
loyal to him and did not leave the field as
long as he was alive. In return, the leader
provided them with spoils of war, in¬
cluding weapons and horses.

crucifixion—a common mode of execu¬
tion in the Roman Empire. In a crucifix¬
ion, the hands and feet of a criminal
were nailed or tied to a cross, and the
offender was left to die in public view.
According to the Gospels, Jesus was
executed in this manner.

diocese—an administrative unit or a prov¬
ince in the Roman Empire. The Church
adopted the term, and it became associ¬
ated with a bishop. The diocese was a
geographical area over which a bishop
had jurisdiction. His responsibilities
there included the ordaining of priests,
administration of canon law, and over¬
sight of monasteries. The symbols of the

150 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

bishop’s office were a ring and a staff
(crozier) in the shape of a shepherd’s
crook, which indicated his care for all
Christians in his “flock.”

Doctors of the Church —early theolo¬
gians of Christianity—such as Augustine
of Hippo, Ambrose of Milan, Jerome,
and Gregory the Great—who made es¬
sential contributions to the formulation
of Christian thought.

Eucharist —the chief sacrament among
Christians, which commemorates the last
supper Jesus had with the apostles before
his arrest and crucifixion. Derived from
the Greek word for “thanksgiving,” the
Eucharist is also known as communion.

Germanic tribes —a group of loosely knit
tribes—including the Anglo-Saxons,
Franks, Burgundians, Alamani, and
Swabians—who spoke languages in what
is now known as the Germanic linguistic
group and also shared customs, modes of
warfare, economic systems, and religious
beliefs. These peoples lived on the bor¬
ders of the Roman Empire in the first
century a.d., when Roman historian
Tacitus wrote of them in a book titled
Germania . They invaded the western
Roman Empire in the late fourth and
fifth centuries.

Gospels —the first four books of the New
Testament, whose authors are tradition¬
ally believed to be the disciples Matthew,
Mark, Luke, and John. The Gospels pro¬
vide information on Jesus’ life and spiri¬
tual teachings.

Gothic tribes —a group of loosely knit
tribes—including the Vandals, Visigoths
(west Goths), and Ostrogoths (east
Goths)—who had their origins in
Scandinavia and spoke a language in
what is now known as the Germanic lin¬
guistic group. They swept east through
central Europe and were forced into the
western Roman Empire by the advance
of the Huns in the 5th century.

heresy —the adoption of a set of principles
at variance with those established or gen¬
erally accepted. In the Middle Ages,
people who accepted views that were

contrary to those of the established
church were regarded as heretics and
their views as heretical. Among the larg¬
est groups of heretics were the Arians,
Cathars, and Lollards (the followers of
John Wycliffe).

Huns —a nomadic group from central Asia
that was driven west by famines and
forced the Goths into the Roman Em¬
pire. They entered the empire them¬
selves under the leadership of Attila the
Hun in the fifth century.

Koran —the religious book of Islam,
which consists of the teachings of
Muhammad and parts of the Old and
New Testament. It is the moral and re¬
ligious guide for the followers of Allah,
or Muslims.

monastery —a house for religious seclu¬
sion whose residents withdraw from the
world in order to concentrate on prayer
and devotion. In the Middle Ages,
monasteries contained religious commu¬
nities whose members observed set rules
and lived, worked, and prayed together.
The Rule of St. Benedict was the most
common monastic rule in the western
medieval Church. The Rule of St. Basil
was more common in the Eastern Or¬
thodox Church. Monasteries were also
known as abbeys, priories, nunneries,
and convents. The head of these estab¬
lishments was an abbot, an abbess, a
prior or a prioress.

Mythras —a semi-divine figure who was
the inspiration for the mystery cult of
Mythracism. The cult flourished in the
Roman Empire in the 2nd and 3rd cen¬
turies. Mythras symbolized the god of
the sun, and the cult offered ethical pre¬
cepts for living, the idea that Mythras
was resurrected, baptism with bulls’
blood, and salvation and eternal fife for
his followers.

Nicaean Creed or Nicene Creed —a

creed repeated in many Christian
churches that states that Christ, God, and
the Holy Ghost are all of one substance
and are all divine. It emerged from the
Council of Nicaea of 325, during which
a group of bishops led by Emperor

Constantine examined Arianism and the
disputes it had caused over the relation¬
ship of Christ to God. The council for¬
mulated the concept of the Holy Trinity
and determined that Arianism, which
held that Christ and God could not both
be divine, was a heresy.

Orthodox, orthodox —with a capital O,
the word refers to the Eastern Ortho¬
dox Church; with a lowercase o, it refers
to the approved and generally accepted
religious beliefs or doctrines of faith.

The term Eastern Orthodox Church
came into use in the 8th century to de¬
scribe the Byzantine and Slavic
churches. Although its beliefs were very
close to the western version of Chris¬
tianity, the Eastern Orthodox Church
did not accept the authority of the
Roman popes.

pagan —a heathen, or one who worships
idols and false gods. In the Middle
Ages, Christians considered as pagans
those who worshiped either the
Roman or Greek pantheon of Gods—
including Jupiter, Mars, and Venus—
or the Germanic gods, such as Woden,
Thor, and Tiu.

plebeians —the common people or lower
ranks of ancient and imperial Rome.

The plebeians were free citizens who
were not patricians (senators). Their rep¬
resentatives met as an assembly, whereas
those of the patricians met in the senate.

rhetoric —the art of effective argument in
prose, verse, or oratory. Knowledge of
rhetoric was regarded as essential training
in the Greek, Roman, and medieval peri¬
ods, during which oral and written argu¬
ments were considered equally important.

Romance languages —those languages
that are based on Latin, such as Italian,
French, Spanish, and Romanian. English
is a combination of Germanic and
French roots.

senator —a title held by upper-class
Romans that gave them considerable
control over the army, government, and
economy of ancient Rome and the
Roman Empire.

GLOSSARY * 151

General History and References

Further

Reading

Barraclough, G. The Origins of Modem Ger¬
many. New York: Norton, 1984.

Bunson, Matthew. Encyclopedia of the Middle
Ages. New York: Facts on File, 1995.

Collins, Roger. Early Medieval Europe,
300—1000 . New York: St. Martin’s,
1991.

Duby, Georges. France in the Middle Ages,
987—1460. Translated by Juliet Vale.
Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1991.

Hollister, C. Warren. The Making of En¬
gland, 55 b.c. to 1399. 6th ed. Lexing¬
ton, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1992.

Hyde, J. K. Society and Politics in Medieval
Italy. New York: St. Martin’s, 1973.

Jordan, William Chester, ed. The Middle
Ages: An Encyclopedia for Children. New
York: Scribner, 1996.

Kibler, William W., et al., eds. Medieval
France: An Encyclopedia. New York: Gar¬
land, 1995.

Le GofF, Jacques. Medieval Civilization,
400-1500. Translated by Julia Barrow.
New York: Blackwell, 1988.

Nicholas, David. The Evolution of the Medi¬
eval World: Society, Government, and
Thought in Europe, 312—1500. New
York: Longman, 1992.

-. Medieval Flanders. New York:

Longman, 1992.

O’Callaghan, Joseph F. A History of Medi¬
eval Spain. Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 1975.

Power, Eileen. Medieval People. New York:
Harper & Row, 1963.

Pulsiano, Phillip, et al., eds. Medieval
Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia. New York:
Garland, 1993

Riche, Pierre. Daily Life in the World of
Charlemagne. Translated by Jo Ann
McNamara. Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press, 1978.

Strayer, Joseph R., ed. Dictionary of the
Middle Ages. New York: Scribner,
1982-89.

Szarmach, Paul E., M. Teresa Tavormina,
and Joel T. Rosenthal. Medieval England:
An Encyclopedia. New York: Garland,
1998.

Primary Sources

Alfred the Great. Translated and introduced
by Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge.
New York: Penguin, 1983.

Augustine, bishop of Hippo. City of God.
Translated by Marcus Dods. New York:
The Modem Library, 1950.

-. Confessions. Translated by Henry

Chadwick. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1991.

Bede, the Venerable. A History of the English
Church and People. Translated by Leo
Sherley-Price. Hannondsworth: Penguin,
1968.

Comnena, Anna. The Alexiad of Anna Comnena.
Translated and Introduced by E. R. A.
Sewter. New York: Penguin, 1969.

Einhard and Notker the Stammerer. Two
Lives of Charlemagne. Translated by Lewis
Thorpe. London: Penguin, 1969.

Eusebius. The History of the Church from
Christ to Constantine. Translated by G. A.
Williamson. New York: Penguin, 1989.

Francis of Assisi. Francis and Clare: The Com¬
plete Works. Translated and introduced by
Regis J. Armstrong and Ignatius C. Brady.
New York: Paulist Press, 1982.

Froissart, Jean. Chronicles. Translated by Geoffrey
Brereton. Baltimore: Penguin, 1978.

Gregory the Great. Dialogues. New York:
Fathers of the Church, 1959.

Gregory of Tours. History of the Franks.
Translated by Lewis Thorpe. New York:
Penguin Books, 1974.

Joinville and Villehardouin. Chronicle of the
Crusades. Baltimore: Penguin, 1963.

The Letters of Abelard and Heloise. Translated
by Betty Radice. New York: Viking
Penguin, 1974.

The Book of Margery Kempe. Translated by
B. A. Windeatt. New York: Viking
Penguin, 1985.

152 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Polo, Marco. The Travels. Translated and
introduced by Ronald Latham. Balti¬
more: Penguin, 1958.

Stenton, Frank, et al. The Bayeux Tapestry:
A Comprehensive Survey. New York:
Phaidon, 1957.

Sturluson, Snorri. King Harald’s Saga:

Harald Hardradi of Norway. Translated by
Magnus Magnusson and Hermann
Palsson. Harmondsworth: Penguin,

1966.

Suger, Abbot. The Deeds of Louis the Fat.
Translated by Richard Cusimano and
John Moorhead. Washington, D.C.:
Catholic University of America Press,
1992.

Tacitus, Cornelius. The Histories . Translated
by Kenneth Wellesley. Baltimore: Pen¬
guin, 1975.

Teresa of Avila. The Life of Saint Teresa of
Avila by Herself Translated and Intro¬
duced by J. M. Cohen. New York: Pen¬
guin, 1988.

Germanic Tribes

Bums, Thomas. A History of the Ostrogoths.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
1984.

Campbell, James, ed. The Anglo-Saxons.
Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982.

Christie, Neil. The Lombards. Cambridge,
Mass.: Blackwell, 1995.

Heather, Peter. The Goths. Cambridge,
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James, Edward. The Franks. Cambridge,
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York: Oxford University Press, 1984.

Manchen-Helfen, J. O. The World of the
Huns. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1973.

Thompson, E. A. The Goths in Spain. Ox¬
ford: Clarendon Press, 1969.

Todd, Malcolm. The Early Germans. Cam¬
bridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1992.

Wolfram, Herwig. History of the Goths.
Translated by Thomas J. Dunlap. Berke¬
ley: University of California Press, 1979.

Monarchies

Bisson, Thomas N. The Medieval Crown of
Aragon. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986.

Duckett, Eleanor Shipley. Carolingian Por¬
traits: A Study in the Ninth Century/. Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
1962.

Fawtier, Robert. The Capetian Kings of
France. New York: St. Martin's, 1960.

Gillingham, John. The Angevin Empire.

New York: Holmes Sc Meier, 1984.

Riche, Pierre. The Carolingians: A Family
Who Forged Europe. Philadelphia: Uni¬
versity of Pennsylvania Press, 1993.

Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. Early Germanic King-
ship in England and on the Continent. Ox¬
ford: Clarendon Press, 1971.

Religion

Brooke, Rosalind, and Christopher
Brooke. Popular Religion in the Middle
Ages. London: Thames Sc Hudson, 1985.

Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo: A Biogra¬
phy. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1967.

Bynum, Caroline Walker. Holy Feast and
Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of
Food to Medieval Women. Berkeley:
University of California Press,

1987.

-. Jesus as Mother: Studies in the Spiri¬
tuality of the High Middle Ages. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1982.

Duckett, Eleanor. The Wandering Saints of
the Early Middle Ages. New York:
Norton, 1959.

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Christianity. New York: Garland, 1990.

Hamilton, Bernard. Religion in the Medieval
West. London: Edward Arnold, 1986.

Hilgarth, J. N., ed. Christianity and Pagan¬
ism, 350-750: The Conversion of Western
Europe. Philadelphia: University of Penn¬
sylvania Press, 1986.

Jones, A. H. M. Constantine and the Conver¬
sion of Europe. New York: Collier Books,
1962.

Lambert, Malcolm. Medieval Heresy: Popular
Movements from the Gregorian Reform to the
Reformation. 2nd ed. Cambridge, Mass.:
Blackwell, 1992.

Lawrence, C. H. The Friars: The Impact of
the Early Mendicant Movement on Western
Society. New York: Longman, 1994.

Lynch, Joseph H. The Medieval Church: A
Brief History. New York: Longman, 1992.

Oakley, Francis. The Western Church in the
Later Middle Ages. Ithaca: Cornell Uni¬
versity Press, 1979.

Southern, R. W. Western Society and the
Church in the Middle Ages. New York:
Penguin, 1977.

Ward, Bene dicta. Miracles and the Medieval
Mind. Philadelphia: University of Penn¬
sylvania Press, 1982.

The Crusades

Mayer, H. E. The Crusades. Translated by J.
Gillingham. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1978.

Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Crusades: A
Short History. New Haven: Yale Univer¬
sity Press, 1987.

Unstead, R. J. Living in a Crusader Land. Il¬
lustrated by Victor Ambrus. Reading,
Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1971.

Architecture and Art

Binski, Paul. Painters. Medieval Craftsmen se¬
ries. Toronto: University of Toronto
Press, 1991.

Brown, Michelle P. Understanding Illumi¬
nated Manuscripts: A Guide to Technical
Terms. Malibu, Calif.: J. Paul Getty Mu¬
seum, 1994.

Brown, Sarah, and David O’Connor.
Glass-Painters. Medieval Craftsmen series.
Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
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Coldstream, Nicola. Masons and Sculptors.
Medieval Craftsmen series. Toronto: Uni¬
versity of Toronto Press, 1991.

Eames, Elizabeth. English Tilers. Medieval
Craftsmen series. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press, 1991.

FURTHER READING • 153

Gimpel, Jean. The Cathedral Builders. Trans¬
lated by C. F. Barnes, Jr. New York:
Grove Press, 1961.

Hamel, Christopher de. Scribes and Illumina¬
tors. Medieval Craftsmen series. Toronto:
University of Toronto Press, 1991.

Staniland, Kay. Embroiderers. Medieval
Craftsmen series. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press, 1991.

Swaan, Wim. The Late Middles Ages: Art
and Architecture from 1350 to the Advent of
the Renaissance. Ithaca: Cornell Univer¬
sity Press, 1977.

Literature

Alighieri, Dante. The Divine Comedy.
Translated by C.H. Sisson. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1995.

Andre le Chapelain. The Art of Courtly
Love. New York: F. Ungar, 1959.

Beowulf. Translated by Michael Alexander.
Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973.

Boccaccio, Giovanni. The Decameron.
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York: Penguin, 1995.

Chaucer, Geof&ey. 77ie Canterbury Tales.
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Chretien de Troyes. Arthurian Romances.
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Christine de Pisan. The Treasure of the City
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Penguin, 1985.

Geoffrey of Monmouth. The History of the
Kings of Britain. Translated by Lewis
Thorpe. Baltimore: Penguin, 1966.

The Lais of Marie de France. Translated by
Glyn S. Burgess and Keith Busby. New
York: Penguin, 1986.

Langland, William. Piers the Ploughman.
Translated byj. F. Goodridge. New
York: Penguin, 1968.

The Song of Roland. Translated by Glyn
Burgess. New York: Penguin, 1983.

Von Strassburg, Gottfried. Tristan. New
York: Penguin, 1967.

Feudalism

Bloch, Marc. Feudal Society. 2 vols. Chi¬
cago: University of Chicago Press, 1961.

Herlihy, David. The History of Feudalism.
Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities
Press, 1971.

Poly, J. P., and Eric Boumazel. The Feudal
Transformation, 900-1200. New York:
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Chivalry and Courtly Love

Barber, Richard. The Knight and Chivalry.
New York: Harper & Row, 1970.

Bumke, Joachim. Courtly Culture: Literature
and Society in the High Middle Ages.
Translated by Thomas Dunlap. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1991.

Keen, Maurice. Chivalry. New Haven:

Yale University Press, 1984.

Painter, Sidney. French Chivalry. Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 1957.

Castles

Biesty, Stephen, and Richard Platt. Castle.
Illustrated by Stephen Biesty. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1994.

Burke, John. Life in the Castle in Medieval
England. London: B. T. Batsford, 1978.

Gies, Joseph, and Frances Gies. Lfe in a
Medieval Castle. New York: Harper Sc
Row, 1974.

Gregor, Hugh. Castles: A Guide for Young
People. London: Her Majesty's Stationery
Office, 1977.

Oakeshott, R. Ewart. A Knight and His
Castle. Illustrated by R. Ewart
Oakeshott. London: Lutterworth,

1965.

Unstead, R. J. Living in a Castle. Illustrated
by Victor Ambrus. Reading, Mass.:
Addison-Wesley, 1971.

Warner, Philip. The Medieval Castle: Lfe in
a Fortress in Peace and War. New York:
Taplinger, 1971.

ArmorandWeapons

Ashdown, Charles Henry. European Arms
and Armour. New York: Barnes Sc
Noble, 1995.

Borg, Alan. Arms and Armour in Britain.
London: Her Majesty’s Stationery
Office, 1979.

DeVries, Kelly. Medieval Military Technol¬
ogy. Lewiston, N.Y.: Broadview Press,
1992.

Glubock, Shirley. Knights in Armor. New
York: Harper Sc Row, 1969.

Nicolle, David. Arms and Armour of the Cru¬
sading Era, 1050-1350. White Plains,
N.Y.: Kraus International Publications,
1988.

Pfaffenbichler, Matthias. Amourers. Medieval
Craftsmen series. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press, 1991.

Peasant Life and Manors

Bennett, H. S. Life on the English Manor.
Wolfeboro, N.H.: A. Sutton, 1989.

15 4 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Chapelot, Jean and Robert Fossier. The
Village and House in the Middle Ages.
Translated by Henry Cleere. Berkeley:
University of Califoia Press, 1985.

Fossier, Robert. Peasant Life in the Medieval
West. New York: Blackwell, 1988.

Genicot, Leopold. Rural Communities in the
Medieval World . Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1990.

Gies, Frances, and Joseph Gies. Life in a
Medieval Village. New York: Harper &
Row, 1990.

Hanawalt, Barbara A. The Ties That Bound:
Peasant Families in Medieval England. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1986.

Morgan, Gwyneth. Life in a Medieval Vil¬
lage. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1975.

Trade and Towns

Cherry, John. Goldsmiths. Medieval Crafts¬
men series. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press, 1991.

Ennen, Edith. The Medieval Town. New
York: North-Holland, 1979.

Gies, Joseph, and Frances Gies. Life in a
Medieval City. New York: Harper &
Row, 1973.

Nicholas, David. The Growth of the Medieval
City: From Late Antiquity to the Early
Fourteenth Century. New York:

Longman, 1997.

-. The Later Medieval City, 1300-

1500. New York: Longman, 1997.

Rorig, Fritz. The Medieval Town. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1967.

Thrupp, Sylvia. Merchant Class of Medieval
London. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press, 1968.

The Plague

Hatcher, John. Plague, Population and the
English Economy, 1348—1530. London:
Macmillan, 1977.

McNeill, W. H. Plagues and People. New
York: Anchor Press, 1976.

Platt, Colin. King Death: The Black Death
and Its Aftermath in Late-Medieval England.
Toronto, University of Toronto Press,
1996.

Ziegler, Philip. The Black Death. New
York: John Day, 1969.

Family Life

Duby, Georges. The Knight, the Lady, and
the Priest: The Making of Modem Marriage
in Medieval France. New York: Pantheon
Books, 1983.

Hanawalt, Barbara A. Growing Up in Medi¬
eval London: The Experience of Childhood
in History. New York: Oxford Univer¬
sity Press, 1993.

Herlihy, David. Medieval Households. Cam¬
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1985.

Parsons, John Carmi, and Bonnie Wheeler,
eds. Medieval Mothering. New York: Gar¬
land, 1996.

Shahar, Shulasmith. Childhood in the Middle
Ages. New York: Roudedge, 1990.

Womeninthe Middle Ages

Ennen, Edith. The Medieval Woman. Ox¬
ford: Basil Blackwell, 1989.

Klapisch-Zuber, Christiane. A History of
Women in the West. Silences of the Middle Ages.
Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press, 1992.

Labarge, M. W. A Small Sound of the Trum¬
pet: Women in Medieval Life. Boston:
Beacon Press, 1986.

McNamara, Jo Ann. A New Song: Celibate
Women in the First Three Christian Centu¬
ries. New York: Haworth Press, 1983.

Power, Eileen. Medieval Women. New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1975.

Shahar, Shulasmith. The Fourth Estate: A
History of Women in the Middle Ages.
Translated by C. Galai. New York:
Methuen, 1983

Wemple, Suzanne Fonay. Women in Frank¬
ish Society: Marriage and the Cloister, 500
to 900. Philadelphia: University of Penn¬
sylvania Press, 1981.

Food and Cooking

Adamson, Melitta Weiss, ed. Food in the
Middle Ages: A Book of Essays. New
York: Garland, 1995.

Am, Mary-Jo, ed. Medieval Food and Drink.
Binghamton, N.Y.: Center for Medieval
and Early Renaissance Studies, 1995.

Black, Maggie. The Medieval Cookbook.

New York: Thames & Hudson, 1992.

Cosman, Madeleine Pelner. Fabulous Feasts:
Medieval Cookery and Ceremony. New
York: Braziller, 1976.

Hieatt, Constance B., Brenda M.
Hosington, and Sharon Butler. Pleyn
Delit: Medieval Cookery for Modern Cooks.
Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
1996.

Scully, D. Eleanor. Early French Cookery:
Sources, History, Original Recipes and Mod¬
ern Adaptations. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press, 1995.

Scully, Terence. The Art of Cookery in the
Middle Ages. Rochester, N.Y.: Boydell
Press, 1995.

FURTHER READING • 155

Index

References to illustrations are indicated
by page numbers in italics

Aachen, 40, 43, 47, 56
Abbasids, 51—53
Abelard, Peter, 87-88
Aethelbert (king of Kent), 32
Agincourt, Battle of, 141
Alaric (Visigoth king), 22
Albigensians, 107, 108
Alcuin (scholar), 41, 42
Alexius Comnenus (Byzantine em¬
peror), 79, 80

Alfred of Wessex (king of England), 56,
57-58

Ali (cousin and son-in-law of
Muhammad), 50—51
Amalsuntha (Byzantine princess), 21
Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, 9-10, 19
Angevin Empire, 98, 100, 141
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 67-68
Anglo-Saxons, 21, 22, 33, 59, 67-68
Anna (queen of Kiev), 50
Anna Comnena, 81, 83
Anthony, St., 18
Antioch, 81-82
Aquinas, St. Thomas, 115
Arabic numerals, 52
Arabs and Arab Empire, 36-37, 39, 42,
50-53, 78, 82, 124
Arianism, 17-18, 25, 27
Aristotle, 114-15
Arnulf (Carolingian emperor), 57
Asser (historian), 57
Astrolabe, 53

Athaulf (Visigoth king), 22
Attila the Hun, 22, 23
Augustine of Hippo, 7, 9, 19, 23, 41
Avicenna (physician), 52—53
Avignon papacy (France), 127, 129,
130-31, 132, 142, 143

Ball, John, 139

Basil I (Byzantine emperor), 49
Basil II (Byzantine emperor), 50
Bayeux tapestry, 67, 68
Becket, St. Thomas, 98-100
Bede, the Venerable, 32-33
Belgium. See Flanders
Benedict, St., 30
Benedictine Rule, 30-32
Beowulf, 20-21, 57
Bernard of Clairvaux, St., 85-86, 88
Bernard de Ventadour (troubador), 85
Bertha (queen of Kent), 32
Bertran de Born (troubador), 85
Bestiaries, 81

Bible, 13-14, 15, 19, 31, 46, 144, 145
Black Death, 28, 128, 129, 135-38
Blanche of Castile, 110, 123
Boethius (Roman scholar), 27, 28, 57,
87

Bohemund (French noble), 80, 81, 82

Boniface VIII, Pope, 125, 126, 139

Book of Kells, 31

Bosworth Field, Battle of, 142

Bouvines, Battle of, 104

Brendan, St., 30

Brigitte of Sweden, St., 142

Britain. See Anglo-Saxons; Danelaw;

Norman Conquest; Wales
Bubonic plague. See Black Death
Bulgars, 49

Burgundian court, 131, 133, 141
Burgundians (tribe), 23
Byzantine Empire, 13, 28, 36, 37, 46-
50, 79-80, 81

Calendars, Julian and Gregorian, 16
Caliphs and caliphates, 50
Cambridge University, 115, 117
Canterbury Cathedral (England), 33
Canterbury Tales (Chaucer), 100, 140
Canute (king of Norway and England),
58

Capetian dynasty, 58, 97, 125, 132
Carolingian Empire, 39-49, 57, 58
Carolingian minuscule, 41, 42
Carpenter, John, 117
Cassiodorus (scholar), 27
Cathedrals, 33, 72-73, 91-92
Catherine of Siena, St., 142-144
Catholic Church. See Roman Catholic
Church

Celestine V, Pope, 125-26
Celts, 10, 31. See also Ireland; Scotland;
Wales

Charlemagne, 39, 40-47
Charles VII (king of France), 141
Charles of Anjou (Charles I of Sicily),
125

Charles the Bald (king of Franks), 38,
48-49

Charles the Fat (Carolingian emperor),
57

Charles Martel (Merovingian king), 39,
43-44

Charles the Simple (Carolingian em¬
peror), 57

Chaucer, Geoffrey, 100, 140
China, 126

Chivalry, code of, 83, 84, 88. See also
Courtly love

Christianity, early, 13-19, 25-27, 29-
33. See also Cathedrals; Great Schism;
Greek Orthodox Church; Monastic
orders; Papacy; Roman Catholic
Church

Christine de Pisan, 140

Ciompi revolt (Italy, 1378), 139

Cistercian Order, 86

City of God (Augustine), 9, 10, 41

Claret St., 108, 109

Clotilda (queen of Franks), 27, 32, 39

Clovis (king of Franks), 25, 26, 39

Cluny, Order of, 72, 73

156 • THE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Codex Justinianus. See Corpus Juris Civilis
College of Cardinals, 74
Concordant of Worms, 76
Confessions (Augustine), 9
Consolation of Philosophy (Boethius), 28,
113

Constantine (Roman emperor), 13, 14,
16-17

Constantinople (Byzantine Empire), 13,
23,34,81,107,144-45
Corpus Juris Civilis (Justinian), 32, 34,
35,112

Council of Constance, 143
Council of Nicaea, 25
Council of Pisa, 143
Courtly love, 70, 82, 84, 85, 88
Crecy, Battle of, 134
Crusades, 79-82, 86, 88, 100-1, 107,
121, 124-25
Cuthbert, St., 30

Danelaw, 56, 58

Dante Alighieri, 139-40

David Llwellyn (king of Wales), 122

Decameron (Boccaccio), 137

Denmark, 55, 56, 58

Diaz, Rodrigo (El Cid), 78

Diocletian (Roman emperor), 13, 14, 16

Dionysius Exiguus, 16

Divine Comedy (Dante), 139

Doctors of the Church, 8, 19

Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem), 51

Domesday Book (England), 67, 68

Dominic, St., 91, 107-8

Dominican Order, 91, 108, 115, 131

Drogo (Normandy), 77-78

Durham Cathedral (England), 73

Edward I (king of England), 122, 126,
132

Edward II (king of England), 132
Edward III (king of England), 97, 132-
34

Edward the Black Prince (England), 134
Edward the Confessor (king of En¬
gland), 66, 67

Egeria (early Christian nun), 18-19
Einhard (biographer), 40-41, 43, 47
El Cid (epic poem), 78
Eleanor of Aquitaine (queen of En¬
gland), 62, 71, 83-84, 89, 91, 98, 100
Elizabeth I (queen of England), 61
England. See specific people, places, and
topics

Epistles of Saint Paul, 10, 14
Estates General (France), 126
Exchequer, 99

Famine, Great of 1315-1317, 130
Farming, 63-66, 130
Felicie, Jacoba, 117
Feudalism, 59-62, 67, 69
Flanders, 133-34, 141

Florence, 76

Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, 129,
130

France. See specific people, places, and
topics

Francesco de Marco Datini, 129, 131,
137, 141

Francis of Assisi, St., 91, 108-9
Franciscan Order, 91, 109, 131
Franks, 21, 22, 23, 26, 33, 39, 41
Frederick I Barbarossa (emperor of Ger¬
many), 101, 102, 104
Frederick II (king of Siciliy and em¬
peror of Germany), 124-25, 127

Galen (physician), 53
Galla Placidia (Roman empress), 22
Gaul, 21, 22, 23, 25
Geoffrey of Lorraine (king of Jerusa¬
lem), 82

Geoffrey Plantagenet (Count of Anjou),
98

Germanic tribes, 20-23, 25
Germany. See specific people, places,
and topics

Golgotha, shrine of, 18
Gospels. See Bible
Gothic architecture, 91-92
Gothic tribes, 20-23
Great Schism (Catholic Church), 79,
143, 144

Great Silk Road, 126

Greek Orthodox Church, 49, 79, 145

Greenland, 56

Gregory VII, Pope, 73-74, 75, 102
Gregory XI, Pope, 143
Gregory XIII, Pope, 16
Gregory the Great, Pope, 73-74, 75,

102

Gregory of Tours (bishop), 26, 28, 29
Guilds, 111, 118-20
Guiscard, Robert de, 78
Guiscard, Roger de, 78
Gutenberg, Johann, 144, 145

Hadrian’s Wall (England/Scotland), 11
Hagia Sophia (Constantinople), 34, 35
Hapsburg dynasty, 127
Harald Hardrada (Norway), 66, 67
Harold Godwinson (England), 66, 67
Harun al-Rashid (caliph of Arabic Em¬
pire), 51

Hastings, Battle of, 66—67
Helena (mother of Constantine), 16
Heloise (Prioress), 88
Henry I (king of England), 97-98
Henry II (king ofEngland), 84, 91, 98-
100

Henry III (king ofEngland), 141
Henry III (emperor of Germany), 72
Henry IV (emperor of Germany), 74-76
Henry V (king ofEngland), 141
Henry V (emperor of Germany), 76

Henry VI (king ofEngland and France),
141

Henry VI (emperor of Germany), 101,

102

Henry VII (king ofEngland), 142
Heraldry, 87

Hildebrand. See Gregory VII
Hildegard of Bingen, 117
History of the English Church and People
(Bede), 32, 33

Holy Roman Empire, 68-69, 101-2,
103, 124

Honorius (Roman emperor), 22
Hugh Capet (France), 58
Humphrey (Normandy), 77-78
Hundred Years’ War, 123 , 129-30,

132, 134, 141
Hungarians. See Magyars
Huns, 22, 23
Hus, Jan, 130, 143, 144

Iceland, 56, 63
India, 52

Innocent III, Pope, 90, 91, 103, 104—5,
107, 109, 114, 124

Inquisition (Roman Catholic Church),
106,107

Ireland, 30, 31, 42, 55, 56
Irene (Byzantine empress), 49
Isabelle (queen of France), 123
Isabelle of Angouleme (queen ofEn¬
gland), 101
Islam, 36, 37, 50-51
Italy. See specific people, places, and
topics

Jacquerie (peasant revolt, France), 138

Jerome, St., 18, 19, 22

Jerusalem, 79, 80, 81, 82, 124

Joan of Arc, 141, 142

John I “Lackland” (king ofEngland),

91, 101, 103

John II “the Good” (king of France),

134

Joinville, Jean de, 121, 123
Justinian (Roman emperor), 28, 32, 33—
35

Kiev (Russia), 50, 55

Koran, 36, 3 7, 51

Krak des Chevaliers (Syria), 96

Langton, Stephen (archbishop), 103, 104
Languages: Arabic, 51; French, 48; Ger¬
man, 48; Greek, 26, 27, 35; Latin, 11,
26, 35; Old English, 20; Romance
group, 29, 48; Slavonic, 49
Lateran Council, 104—6
Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, 82
Legnano, Battle of, 102
Leo III, Pope, 42-43
Lombard League, 102
Lombards, 29, 33, 42
Lothair (Holy Roman emperor), 48, 49

INDEX • 157

Louis VII (king of France), 83-84, 98,

100

Louis IX (king of France), 110 , 121 , 123
Louis the German (king of Franks), 48-
49

Louis the Pious (Holy Roman em¬
peror), 47-49

Low Countries (Belgium, Netherlands),
41, 77, 133. See also Flanders

Magna Carta, 91, 104, 105
Magyars, 53, 57
Manuscripts, illuminated, 31
Maps, medieval, 6
Marie de France (author), 85, 118
Marriage, 61-62, 65, 71, 83-84, 96-97
Marshall, William (Earl of Pembroke),
89, 104

Marthana (early Christian), 18
Martin of Braga (bishop), 47
Martyrs, Christian, 15-16
Matilda (queen of England), 97-98
Mecca, shrine of, 36
Medieval, definition of, 7
Merovingian dynasty, 27, 39
Michael III “the Drunkard” (Byzantine
emperor), 49

Middle Ages, definition of, 7
Middle Kingdom (Holy Roman Em¬
pire), 49, 55, 68
Milan, 76, 102
Monks. See Monastic orders
Monastic orders, 30-31, 41, 61, 71-72,
86,108-9

Montfor, Simon de, 121-22
Mortimer, Roger, 132
Moslems, 78. See also Arabs and Arab
Empire; Islam; Turks
Muhammad (Prophet), 36, 50, 51
Music, #5-86

Mythras and Mythrasism, 13, 17

Naples (Italy), 102, 127
Netherlands. See Low Countries
Nicene Creed, 17-18, 79
Nobles. See Feudalism
Nogaret, William de, 123-24, 126
Norman Conquest, 66-68
Normandy, 77-78, 66
Norway, 56, 58. See also Vikings
Novgorod (Russia), 50, 55

Nuns, 18, 88, 71, 144

Odofredus (law professor), 114

Omar Khayam, 52

Omens, 47

Ostrogoths, 23, 27

Otto the Great (king of Germany),

68

Ottoman Empire. See Turks
Oxford University, 115, 117

158 *

Paganism, 47

Papacy, 29-30, 73-76, 102-3, 127, 129,
130-31, 132 , 142, 143
Papal bulls, 103
Papal States, 40
Parliament (England), 122-23
Patrick, St., 30
Pax Romana, 11

Peasants. See Farming; Feudalism; Revolts
Pepin the Short (Merovingian king), 40,
43

Perpetua (Christian martyr), 15-16
Persians, 13, 35, 36-37, 51-52
Peter, St., 29-30
Peter of Aragon, 125
Petrarch, Francesco, 131-32
Philip II Augustus (king of France), 100,
101, 104

Philip IV “the Fair” (king of France),
123, 126-27, 132, 133
Philippa (queen of England), 97
Philo Judaes (Jewish scholar), 19
Piets, 11

Plantagenet dynasty, 98
Poitiers, Battle of, 134, 135
Poland, 135, 139
Polo, Marco, 126
Pompeii (Italy), 11-13
Prince of Wales (title), 122
Printing press, 144, 145
Procopius (historian), 33—34

Raymon of Toulouse, 80
Reconquista (Spain), 78
Reims Cathedral (France), 92
Relics, of saints, 29, 41, 107, 115
Religion. See Christianity; Greek Or¬
thodox Church; Islam; Paganism; Ro¬
man Catholic Church
Revolts, of peasants, 138-39
Richard I “the Lion-Hearted” (king of
England), 91, 100, 101-2
Richard II (king of England), 140-141
Richard III (king of England), 142
Robert (Duke of Normandy), 80
Roman Catholic Church, 29-30, 40, 49,
73-74, 75-76, 79, 102-9, 127, 130-
31, 142, 143. See also Cathedrals; Mo¬
nastic orders; Papacy
Romances, and chivalry, 84, 85. See also
Courtly love

Roman Empire, 9-13, 20, 21,27, 33-35
Romanesque architecture, 72-73, 92
Rome, sack of, 22-23, 25
Roswitha of Gandersheim, 69
Rubaiyat (Omar Khyyam), 52
Rudolf I of Hapsburg, 127
Runnymead, Battle of, 104
Rus (Vikings), 49-50, 55
Russia, 49-50, 55, 145. See also Slavs
Saladin (Turk leader), 101
Scholastica, St., 30

Scholasticism, 114
Scotland, 11

Serfs. See Farming; Feudalism; Revolts
Shiites (Islam), 51
Sicilian Vespers, 125
Sicily, 28, 78, 102, 124, 125, 127
Sidonius Apollinarius (Roman official),
25-26

Sigismund (emperor of Germany), 143
Slavs, 49, 50

Song of Roland, 42, 43, 62, 63
Sorbonne, Robert de, 116
Spain, 22, 23, 44, 42, 50, 56, 78, 82,
125, 139

Stephen (king of England), 89, 98
Stephen, Pope, 40
Strasborg Oaths, 48
Suger (abbot of St. Denis), 91-92
Sulys, Battle of, 134
Sutton Hoo (England), 21
Sweden, 20, 21, 55. See also Vikings
Sylvester II, Pope, 69
Synod of Whitby, 32, 33

Tacitus (Roman historian), 20
Tancred de Hauteville (Normandy),
77-78

Theodora (Byzantine empress), 33-35,
34

Theodoric (Ostrogoth leader), 14
Thousand and One Nights, 51-52
Tournaments, 86-87
Troubadors, 85
Troyes, Treaty of, 141
Tudor dynasty, 142

Turks, 78-79, 80, 81, 82, 101, 144. See
also Arabs and Arabic Empire; Islam
Tyler, Wat, 139

Universities, 115-117
University of Paris, 113-115
Urban II, Pope, 79-80

Vandals (tribe), 23
Van Eyck, Jan, 141
Verdun, Treaty of, 49, 68
Vesuvius, Mt., 13
Vikings, 53, 54, 55-59, 63
Villard de Honnecourt, 93
Villein, definition of, 64
Visigoths (tribe), 22, 25, 33
Vladimir (king of Kiev), 50

Wales, 122

War of the Roses, 141-42
William Iron-Arm (Normandy), 77-78
William the Conqueror (king of En¬
gland), 66—68

Women, 34 ,, 45, 46, 61-62, 64, 96,
117-18, 142. See also Courtly love;
Marriage; Nuns

Wycliffe, John, 130, 142-43, 144

HE MIDDLE AGES / AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

Picture

Credits

Alinari/Art Resource, NY: 10, 14
bottom, 17, 30 left, 32 bottom, 87, 109,
120; Antivarisk—Topografiska Arkivet,
Stockholm: 57 top; Art Resource, NY:
31, 45, 122; The Bettmann Archive: 119;
Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Flo¬
rence: 76; Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana
[Fr. Z 21 (=257), f.l45r (miniature)], 63;
Biblioteca Vaticana: 124 (MS Pal. Lat.
1071, f.81r) Bibliotheque Municipale de
Troyes, 61; Bibliotheque nationale de
France, Paris, cover, 18 top, 36, 52, 82
top, 135; The Bodleian Library, Oxford:
82 bottom (MS Bodl. 264, f.2v), 117
(MS Bodl. 13, f.l7v); British Library, 6,
20 bottom, 30 right, 32 top, 42, 46, 58,
59, 66, 98, 100, 105, 108, 116, 120, 134,
138; © The British Museum, 21, 23; By
Permission of the Syndics of Cambridge
University Library: 29, 99; Chetham’s
Library, Manchester: 102; The Govern¬
ing Body of Christ Church, Oxford: 97;
Corporation of London Records Office:
118 bottom (Cust. 4); Escorial Library,
Madrid, 78, 85; Fitzwilliam Museum,
Cambridge, 40; Foto Marburg/Art
Resource, NY, 15, 41 bottom, 47, 72,

74, 101, 104; Fototeca Unione, Rome,

12 bottom; Fratelli Alinari: 107;
Giraudon/Art Resource, NY, 26, 28
bottom, 38, 43, 48, 67, 80, 86 top, 89,

96, 114, 123, 126, 128, 131, 136, 140,
142; Hirmer Fotoarchiv, 18 bottom;
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, 27;
Leiden, University Library: 79 (MS Voss.
Lat. F. 31, f.85r); Erich Lessing/Art
Resource, NY, 2, 14 top, 50, 70, 127;

Library of Congress: 106, 113, 143 (Rare
Books and Special Collections); The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 13 [Rogers
Fund, 1903. (03.14.13)], 37 right [Rogers
Fund, 1940. (40.162.2a)], 37 left [Rogers
Fund, 1952. (52.114)], 57 bottom
[Rogers Fund, 1955. (55.46.1)], 60
[Bashford Dean Memorial Collection,

Gift of Helen Fahnestock Hubbard, in
memory of her father Harris C.
Fahnestock, 1929. (29.154.3)], 68 [Gift of
George Blumenthal, 1941. (41.100.157)],
86 bottom [The Cloisters Collection,
1979. (1979.402)], 133 bottom [Rogers
Fund, 1919. (19.49.4)]; Museo
Capitolino, Rome: 12 top; Board of
Trustees, National Gallery of Art,
Washington: 139; The New York Public
Library: 118 top; The New York Public
Library, Picture Collection: 115; The
Pierpont Morgan Library/Art Resource,
NY: 19, 65, 81, 84, 110, 145;

Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Bonn: 26;
The Royal Collection © Her Majesty the
Queen Elizabeth II: 121; Scala/Art
Resource, NY: 8, 20 top, 34, 41 top, 53,
73, 90, 94, 112, 137; Schloss Friedenstein,
Gotha: 132; Snark/Art Resource, NY:

133 top; Staatsbibliothek Bamburg: 28
top; Ira N. Toff: 51, 92; original maps by
Gary Tong: 11, 22, 44, 77, 95; Master
and Fellows, Trinity College, Cambridge:
32; © Ulrich K. Tutsch: 93;

Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo: 54,

56; Vanni/Art Resource, NY: 35;

Victoria & Albert Museum, London/Art
Resource, NY: 64.

About the Author

Barbara A. Hanawalt is the George III
Professor of British History at Ohio State
University. She was previously professor of
history at the University of Minnesota and
the director of its Medieval Studies Center.
Her most recent books include Growing Up
in Medieval London: The Experience of Child¬
hood in History, The Ties that Bound: Peasant
Families in Medieval England , and ‘Of Good
and HI Repute } : Gender and Social Control in
Medieval England.